Plant species evaluated for new crop potential

About 500 plant species from various regions of the United States have been screened previously at the USDA Northern Regional Research Center for their multipurpose, energy-producing potential. Most collections have been from the rich flora of central Illinois. For this report, 92 additional species were collected from southern Illinois and evaluated by criteria previously established at this Center. Plant samples were analyzed for “oil,” “polyphenol,” “hydrocarbon,” and protein. Oil fractions of selected species were analyzed for classes of lipid constituents and were saponified to determine yields of unsaponifiable matter and fatty acids. Hydrocarbon fractions of selected species were analyzed for rubber, gutta, and waxes. Average molecular weight and molecular weight distribution of rubber and gutta were determined. of the 92 species, complete analytical data are presented for 16 selected species. Substantial quantities of oil were obtained fromPhiladelphias coronarius (5.0%; dry, ash-free sample basis),Cacalia muhlenbergii (4.1%),Lindera benzoin (4.1 %), andKoelreuteria paniculata (4.0%). High yields of polyphenol were obtained fromAcer ginnala (33.1%),Cornus obliqua (20.8%), andSalix caprea (20.0%). Maximum yields of hydrocarbon and protein were fromElymus virginicus (0.6%) andLindera benzoin (11.1%), respectively. Data are discussed with respect to species previously analyzed at this Center.     

Xerophytic species evaluated for renewable energy resources

Previously, the USDA Northern Regional Research Center has examined 600 plant species in 88 families for their multipurpose, energy-producing potential. About three-fourths of these species have been from central and southern Illinois, but only about 2% have been from arid or semiarid regions of the United States. For this report, 100 species collected from Arizona were evaluated, bringing the total number of species evaluated at this Center to 700 in 96 families. Plant specimens were analyzed for yields of fractions referred to as “oil,” “polyphenol,” “hydrocarbon,” and protein and were examined for botanical characteristics. Oil and hydrocarbon fractions of selected species were partially characterized. Ten species gave high yields of oil and/or polyphenol. For example,Asclepias linaria yielded 8.7% oil (dry, ash-free sample basis) + 11.7% polyphenol (1.9% hydrocarbon).Rhus choriophylla yielded 7.0% oil + 20% polyphenol (0.4% hydrocarbon) andJuglans major yielded 7.0% oil + 9.4% polyphenol (0.2% hydrocarbon).Pittosporum tobira gave the highest yield of hydrocarbon (23%). Fourteen species contained at least 18% protein. In general, the percentages of species yielding substantial amounts of oil and/or polyphenol were considerably higher for the Arizona species than for those 600 species previously analyzed. Complete analytical data are presented for 38 species and are discussed in relationship to the 600 species previously reported.     

New sources of gutta-percha in Garrya flavescens and G. wrightii

Analyses of extracts from whole-plant samples revealed that Garrya flavescens and Garrya wrightii produced gutta (trans-1,4-polyisoprene) as the major hydrocarbon in yields of 1.2 and 0.4 %, respectively. The average MWs of gutta were 142000 for G. flavescens and 10000 for G. wrightii. These species also yielded moderate amounts of ‘oil’ and ‘polyphenol’. To our knowledge, these are the first species of Garryaceae reported to produce gutta.     

Tennessee plant species screened for renewable energy sources

The USDA Northern Regional Research Center (NRRC) has previously studied chemical and botanical characteristics of about 1,000 plant species in efforts to identify potential new plant sources for industrial raw materials. For this report, an additional 51 species were collected from Tennessee and studied. Above-ground plant samples were analyzed for yields of oils, polyphenols, hydrocarbons, protein, and ash. Oils were examined for the presence of seven classes of lipids and analyzed for yields of fatty acids and unsaponifiable matter. Hydrocarbons were examined for the presence of rubber, gutta, and waxes. Rubber and gutta were analyzed for average molecular weight (MW) and MW distribution. Chemical and botanical data are presented for eight of the 51 species. A checklist of the 43 other species is given; data on these are available from NRRC.Lapsana communis yielded the most oil (6.1%; dry, ash-free, plant sample basis).Ilex montana yielded the most polyphenol (21.5%) plus 4.5% oil.Agrimonia parviflora and Catalpa bignonioides gave substantial yields of polyphenol (20.0% and 17.9%, respectively), andPassiflora incarnata contained the most apparent protein (19.8%).Chrysopsis graminifolia, Solidago erecta, andVerbesina alternifolia were identified as rubber-producing species with 0.4-0.7% hydrocarbon.     

Laticiferous taxa as a source of energy and hydrocarbon

Twenty-nine laticiferous taxa of Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Sapotaceae were screened for suitability as alternative sources of renewable energy, rubber, and phytochemicals and to select the most promising ones for large-scale cultivation. Of these,Allamanda violacea (14.9% protein, 13.8% polyphenol, 8.6% oil, 3.2% hydrocarbon),Catharanthus roseus (15.4% protein, 10.4% polyphenol, 11.5% oil, 1.9% hydrocarbon), andHolarrhena antidysenterica (14.2% protein, 16.4% polyphenol, 5.4% oil, 4.8% hydrocarbon) of Apocynaceae;Asclepias curassavica (19.3% protein, 6.5% polyphenol, 3.9% oil, 2.0% hydrocarbon), Calotropis gigantea (18.5% protein, 6.8% polyphenol, 7.0% oil, 2.8% hydrocarbon) of Asclepiadaceae;Mimusops elengi (11.3% protein, 9.7% polyphenol, 7.2% oil, 4.0% hydrocarbon) of Sapotaceae show promising potential for future petrochemical plantations; of all these taxa,Holarrhena antidysenterica yielded an unusually high percentage (4.8%) of hydrocarbon fraction followed byMimusops elengi (4.0%). NMR spectra confirmed the presence of cis-polyisoprene in all species studied exceptNerium indicum (white-flowered var.). These data indicate that the majority of the species under investigation may be considered for large-scale cultivation as an alternative source of rubber, intermediate energy, and other phytochemicals.     

Renewable resources from wild sunflowers (Helianthus spp., asteraceae)

Twenty-eight taxa of Helianthus collected throughout the United States and grown in afield nursery were evaluated for yields of oil, polyphenol hydrocarbon, protein, and ash in above-ground biomass. Hydrocarbons were examined for the presence of rubber, gutta, and waxes. Rubber and gutta were analyzed for weight-average molecular weight (ìw) and molecular weight distribution (MWD). Helianthus ciliaris had the highest oil yield (3.7%) and was analyzed for yield of fatty acids and unsaponifiable matter. Most taxa had low polyphenol yields (<10%), with H. strumosus having the highest (13.9%). Helianthus salicifolius yielded the most hydrocarbon (1.6%) and H. ciliaris had the highest protein content (13.4%). Natural rubber was present in 13 species of wild sunflowers. Helianthus maximiliani had the lowest ìw (29.8 x 10³), while H. laevigatus had the highest (73.3 x 10³). The MWD of rubber from sunflowers were within the range of those for commercial rubbers. The lower molecular weight rubbers may have potential as plasticizing additives in commercial processing of synthetic polyisoprenes and as hydrocarbon feedstock for a synthetic petroleum industry.     

Major Extractable Components in Asclepias linaria (Asclepiadaceae) and Ilex verticillata (Aquifoliaceae), Two Potential Hydrocarbon Crops

The major extractable components of two species identified as having high oil or polyphenol contents were characterized in detail.Asclepias linaria, a desert milkweed, contains 30.3% extractable material on a dry-weight basis, andIlex verticillata contains 41.5% extractable material on a dry-weight basis. Important components inA. linaria oil fractions are triterpene alcohols and esters, wax, and natural rubber; fatty acid triglycerides were nearly absent.Ilex verticillata oil fractions were predominantly triglycerides with some triterpene fatty acid esters. The more polar polyphenol fraction contained sugars and sugar esters of fatty acids and triterpene acids. The polyphenol fraction from these plants is better described as a saponin fraction. Because the crude saponin fraction represents 10.7% of the dry weight of A. linaria and 18.9% of the dry weight ofI. verticillata and because the saponin fractions showed good emulsifying properties, the refined extract of these plants might be used as a biodegradable surfactant.     

Non-destructive hydrocarbon extraction from Botryococcus braunii BOT-22 (race B)

There is worldwide interest in developing algal biofuel. One main reason for the lack of success so far in producing a sustainable transport fuel from microalgae is the high cost of biomass processing, especially dewatering and oil extraction. There is also a significant cost involved in the energy content of the nutrient fertilisers required for biomass production. Non-destructive oil extraction or “milking” from algae biomass has the potential to bypass all of these hurdles. Using a “milking” strategy means that there would be no need for (a) biomass dewatering, (b) breaking cells for oil extraction and (c) addition of nutrients to the culture, resulting in a significant reduction in energy and fertiliser cost involved in production of biofuel from algae. We make use of the natural tendency of Botryococcus to produce external hydrocarbon in the extracellular matrix. In current study, we showed that external hydrocarbon from Botryococcus braunii BOT-22 can be non-destructively extracted using n-heptane (optimum contact time with n-heptane?=?20 min). We were able to recover almost the entire de novo-produced external hydrocarbons at 5- and 11-day intervals when the culture was maintained with or without 1 % CO₂ addition, respectively. This repeated non-destructive extraction of external hydrocarbon of B. braunii was possible for up to 70 days when 1 % CO₂ was supplied to the culture. When CO₂ was limited, a 70 % lower external hydrocarbon productivity was achieved using the same process. Although the productivity of external hydrocarbon of 9.33 mg L^?1 day^?1 of the “milked” culture is low in these un-optimised cultures, it was 1.3?±?0.2-fold higher compared with that of a conventional semicontinuous culture, showing the potential of this method.     

Die lichtabhängige Besiedlung von Hafenstützpfeilern durch sessile Tiere und Algen aus dem Korallenriff bei Eilat (Rotes Meer)

The influence of light on coral reef communities has been studied in the merchant harbour of Eilat (Red Sea), where other parameters of the local ecosystem remain relatively constant. The harbour pier is supported over a length of about 550 m by eight rows of concrete pillars. Water current is parallel to the pillar rows. Benthic animals and algae settle on the pillars, between the sun-exposed first and the extremely shadowy eighth row, according to the light gradient (about 13 – 0.1% of the light intensity above the surface). The observations were carried out from January, 1970 to March, 1971. In the most common species (28 animals and five algae), four settlement zones can be distinguished: (a) “bright zone” (13 – 3% of the light intensity measured above the water surface) withTridacna maxima, T. squamosa andPadina pavonia and some stone corals as indicators; (b) “dim-light zone, bright” (3 – 1%) withSiphonochalina siphonella andDendronephthya species as indicators; (c) “dim-light zone, dark” (1 – 0.4%) withAcabaria biserialis andClathraria rubrinodis as indicators; (d) “dark zone” (0.4 – 0.1%) with violetLithothamnion andLithophyllum species as indicators. The distribution of animals in the horizontal light gradient (rows 1–8) corresponds to that in the vertical light gradient in coral reefs; this has been verified by SCUBA diving to 40 m depth near Eilat, Dahab, and Sharm el Sheikh on the Sinai coast, and Aqaba on the Jordanian coast of the Gulf. Light intensity is the dominant ecological factor which affects the distribution of the majority of species in the reef.     

Agronomic and chemical evaluation of smooth sumac,Rhus glabra

Smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) is a potential whole-plant source of polyphenol and oil. In a 2-yr evaluation of progenies from 14 Maryland, 1 northern Virginia, and 2 Georgia populations, highly significant variation (1% level) in vigor, number of plants surviving the seeding year, dry matter yield the seeding year, and number of tillers produced the second year was observed. In 15 entries, highly significant variation (1% level) in polyphenol+oil and in gallotannins was observed. Dry matter yields, extrapolated to Mg har^-1, ranged from 0.02 to 1.4 (for a single harvest), % polyphenol+oil from 19.4-31.1, and % gallotannins (a class of polyphenols) from 9.8 to 15.7. It is suggested that significantly improved lines could be developed through breeding. Based on estimated ratios of σ² _Entries/σ² _Entries+σ², genetic variation for most agronomic traits could be estimated with fair precision whereas variation for chemical traits could be affected substantially by nongenetic factors. Factor analysis indicated plants that would perform reasonably well over a 2-yr period could be selected on the basis of early seeding-year vigor scores. Selection for high amounts of polyphenol+oil and gallotannins would have to be done independently of agronomic selection. Cutting frequencies should not exceed 2×yr^-1 or serious stand loss would occur.     

Capitula essential oil composition of seven Centaurea species (sect. Acrocentron,Asteraceae) – Taxonomic implication and ecological significance

In this paper, we analyzed the capitula essential oil composition of seven Centaurea species, six of which belong to Centaurea calocephala complex, and the related species Centaurea melanocephala Pančić (subgenus Acrocentron, tribus Cardueae, subtribus Centaureinae) which inhabit Balkans Peninsula. The volatile organic compounds were extracted by simultaneous distillation extraction, using Likens-Nickerson type apparatus and the oils were analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. In total, 146 compounds were identified (95.5–99.4% of the total oil composition). The essential oils were dominated by sesquiterpenes (39.1–81.7%). The most abundant components were β-caryophyllene (3.1–28.3%), caryophyllene oxide (4.7–31.2%), germacrene D (2.9–22.2%), followed by n-hexacosane, [2Z,6E]-farnesol, eudesma-4(15),7-dien-1-β-ol, α-cadinole, germacrene B, trans-verbenol, and hexanal that were present in some samples in relatively high abundances. The geographic region and the color of capitula were analyzed in correlation with essential oil composition. Also, all investigated species are characterized by the different amount of most dominant components, which leads to the hypothesis that they “choose” different strategies: different combination and amounts of attractants for pollinators. Ecological correlations and taxonomical implications are further discussed.     

Some dasyclad algae of the sinemurian from the north-western iberian chains (Spain)

In a section of the Liassic southwest of the village of Préjano (Prov. Logroño) Sinemurian Dasyclad algae were found for the first time in the “Bankkalk-Series” of the “Carniolas-Formation” which is not dated up to that time. Six species,Dissocladella lucasi (Cros & Lemoine),Dissocladella iberica nov. sp.,Dissocladella ebroensis nov. sp.,Sestrosphaera liasina Pia,Gyroporella retica (Zanin) andMacroporella nov. sp. aff. sturi Bystricky are described.     

Feeding preferences and performance of an aquatic lepidopteran on macrophytes: plant hosts as food and habitat

Although host preferences in phytophagous insects may be generated by several factors, few studies have simultaneously examined several potential host choice determinants. In this study we tested the impact of the following potential host choice determinants on host preference of the semi-aquatic lepidopteran Munroessa gyralis (Pyralidae): growth on different host plants; protein content, polyphenolic content, toughness, and chemical extracts of different host plants; prior feeding experience; and predation pressure on the caterpillar by fishes. Two water lilies, Brasenia schreberi and Nymphaea odorata, were preferred in cafeteria-style feeding experiments over 14 other species of vascular plants. The most preferred water lily (Brasenia) also afforded the fastest growth relative to three other species on which growth was measured. Feeding preferences across species were unrelated to protein content, polyphenolic content, or toughness. Domiciles constructed by caterpillars from leaf fragments were protective from field assemblages of fishes, but domiciles made from preferred or unpreferred host species conferred no significant protection from fish in the laboratory. Caterpillars responded positively to chemical cues of water lilies, and prior feeding experience increased preference for an otherwise unpreferred water lily (Nuphar advena) within the life-span of individual caterpillars. M. gyralis is a generalist herbivore exhibiting modest preference induction and preferences for and among members of the family Nymphaeaceae. Our results suggest that relative growth rates, chemical cues, and previous feeding experience are important factors determining feeding preference. Protein content, polyphenolic content, and toughness appear less important, and the importance of fish predators remains in question. As pupation seems to occur exclusively on Nymphaea, we suggest that host use may be restricted due to life-stage-specific developmental constraints that are not apparent from the results of growth or preference assays. It is currently unknown how often specific life-stages may restrict host use, but our work suggests this as a potentially important area of inquiry.     

Systematic review on medicinal plants used for the treatment of Giardia infection

BackgroundHowever, broad adoption of herbal remedies for giardiasis is at present hampered by uncertain findings of investigation not always sufficiently powered. This study was aimed at systematically reviewing the existing literature in herbal medicines to treat giardiasis.MethodsThis review was carried out 06- PRISMA guideline and registered in the CAMARADES-NC3Rs Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Facility (SyRF) database. The search was performed in five databases which are Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Google Scholar without time limitation for all published articles (in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies). The searched words and terms were: “Giardia”, “giardiasis”, “extract”, “essential oil”, “herbal medicines”, “anti-Giardia”, “In vitro”, “In vivo”, “clinical trial” etc.ResultsOut of 1585 papers, 40 papers including 28 in vitro (70.0%), 7 in vivo (17.5%), 2 in vitro/ in vivo (5.0%), and 3 clinical trials (7.5%) up to 2020, met the inclusion criteria for discussion in this systematic review. The most widely used medicinal plants against Giardia infection belong to the family Lamiaceae (30.0%) followed by Asteraceae (13.5%), Apiaceae (10.5%). The most common parts used in the studies were aerial parts (45.0%) followed by leaves (27.4%) and seeds (7.5%). The aqueous extract (30.0%), essential oil (25.4%) and hydroalcholic and methanolic (10.5%) were considered as the desired approaches of herbal extraction, respectively.ConclusionThe current review showed that the plant-based anti-Giardia agents are very promising as an alternative and complementary resource for treating giardiasis since had low significant toxicity. However, more studies are required to elucidate this conclusion, especially in clinical systems.     

Evaluation of 107 legumes for renewable sources of energy

One hundred and seven species of randomly-collected Leguminosae were evaluated for their potential as energy-producing crops. Whole plants, excluding roots, were chemically analyzed, and 11 species were identified as the more promising for future considerations based on a numerical rating system developed at this Center. Botanical, fiber, and protein characteristics of the more promising species that had ratings of less than 11 were considered excellent. Other characteristics, including contents of oil (1.7–3.2%; dry, ash-free, sample basis), polyphenol (5.4–16.5%), and hydrocarbon (0.3–0.6% for 10 species and 2.6% for one), were generally lower than those of promising species in other families previously analyzed. Of the 11 species, one contained principally rubber (polyisoprene) in the hydrocarbon fraction and 7 contained principally wax. Hydrocarbon fractions of 3 species with less than 0.4% were not examined. The oils of species with at least 3.0% oil were examined by thin layer chromatography (TLC) to determine classes of components and were given a saponification treatment to determine yields of unsaponifiable matter and fatty acids. The oil of one species was quantitatively analyzed for classes of compounds by TLC-flame ionization detection. Selected species with ratings greater than 10 are briefly discussed.     

Pollination ofNuphar (Nymphaeaceae) in Europe: Flies and bees rather thanDonacia beetles

Nuphar (Nymphaeaceae) comprises a small holarctic group of aquatic perennials whose flowers are pollinated by flies, bees, and beetles. We studied pollination in different populations of the two European speciesN. lutea andN. pumila in Norway and in Germany. Flowers are self-compatible and protogynous, preventing automatic selfing, and insect pollination is required for seed production. Sympatric populations were studied in Vest-Agder county in Norway to determine whetherN. lutea andN. pumila have the same or different pollinators. Allopatric populations ofN. lutea in Germany and Norway were then compared to determine whether their pollinator spectra differ as would be expected in an open flower with seemingly easily accessible pollen and nectar. Results of the present as well as previous studies of the pollination ofN. lutea andN. pumila show that both species are mainly pollinated by flies, including apparentNuphar specialists, such as the scatophagidHydromyza livens and the ephydridsHydrellia andNotiphila, the last also a long-known pollinator ofN. advena in Florida. Pollinator overlap between sympatric heterospecific populations was small, while allopatric conspecific populations had similar visitor and pollinator spectra. We found no evidence of pollination byDonacia beetles as reported from some North American populations ofNuphar. Dedicated to Univ.-Prof. DrF. Ehrendorfer on the occasion of his 70th birthday     

Pennisetum setaceum or Pennisetum advena cultivars,what ornamental do we have in our garden

Pennisetum Rich. or following recent taxonomic insights Cenchrus L. is a genus with some 120 species worldwide, especially in warm areas. The genus includes some crops, some ornamentals but mostly species that are considered weedy. The name of one of the weedy species Pennisetum setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov. is also found on labels of ornamental grasses as P. setaceum “Rubrum.” It has been debated to belong to a species on its own Pennisetum advena Wipff & Veldkamp or Cenchrus advena (Wipff & Veldkamp) Morrone, only known from cultivation, whereas others still adhere to a broader species concept of P. setaceum. The recent inclusion of P. setaceum on the EU List of Union concern has revitalized the discussion on this issue for commercial reasons. Based on a morphological and molecular comparison (ITS, rbcL, and the trnh‐psbA intergenic spacer sequences) of the type specimen of P. advena, five of its “cultivars” in trade and collections of P. setaceum from different regions of the world we conclude that plants currently in trade in Western Europe belong to a separate species P. advena. A drooping inflorescence is consistent as is the difference in width of the leaf blade, the leaf blade being flat or involute, the central vein being swollen or not, and the length of the stipe being 0.3–1.1 mm in P. advena and 1.1–3.1 mm in P. setaceum. On the chloroplast markers rbcL and trnH‐psbA, the species consistently differ in 2 and 4 base pairs, respectively. On the nuclear ITS sequence, there is only 90% overlap between the two species. This justifies these ornamentals to be excluded from the List of Union concern of EU regulation 1143/2014.     

Variation of monoterpenoids inartemisia feddei andArtemisia scoparia

The composition and concentration of monoterpenoids in the leaves and stems ofArtemisia feddei andArtemisia scoparia were determined, and seasonal variation in the monoterpenoids ofArtemisia species were investigated. The two species possessed different compositions and concentrations of monoterpenoids. The total amount of monoterpenoid inA. scoparia was always higher than that of A.feddei, and the monoterpenoid yields of leaves were higher than stem yields in both species as compounds formed. The major constituents of A.scoparia were 25 while A.feddei consisted of 26 compounds. Sixteen common monoterpenoid compounds were found in both plants. Large differences in the relative amounts of the monoterpenoids were found between species and seasons. Extremely large differences in the relative amounts of naphtalene, sabinene, β-pinene, cyclohexene, and octatrine were found in the leaf monoterpenoids of the two species. The largest differences in relative amounts of stem monoterpenoids were in s abinene and β-pinene levels.