Arginine 177 is involved in Mn(II) binding by manganese peroxidase.

Site-directed mutations R177A and R177K in the gene encoding manganese peroxidase isozyme 1 (mnp1) from Phanerochaete chrysosporium were generated. The mutant enzymes were expressed in P. chrysosporium during primary metabolic growth under the control of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene promoter, purified to homogeneity, and characterized by spectroscopic and kinetic methods. The UV-vis spectra of the ferric and oxidized states and resonance Raman spectra of the ferric state were similar to those of the wild-type enzyme, indicating that the heme environment was not significantly affected by the mutations at Arg177. Apparent K(m) values for Mn(II) were approximately 20-fold greater for the R177A and R177K MnPs than for wild-type MnP. However, the apparent K(m) values for the substrates, H(2)O(2) and ferrocyanide, and the k(cat) values for Mn(II) and ferrocyanide oxidation were similar to those of the wild-type enzyme. The second-order rate constants for compound I (MnPI) reduction of the mutant MnPs by Mn(II) were approximately 10-fold lower than for wild-type MnP. In addition, the K(D) values calculated from the first-order plots of MnP compound II (MnPII) reduction by Mn(II) for the mutant enzymes were approximately 22-fold greater than for wild-type MnP. In contrast, the first-order rate constants for MnPII reduction by Mn(II) were similar for the mutant and wild-type MnPs. Furthermore, second-order rate constants for the wild-type and mutant enzymes for MnPI formation, for MnPI reduction by bromide, and for MnPI and MnPII reduction by ferrocyanide were not significantly changed. These results indicate that both the R177A and R177K mutations specifically affect the binding of Mn, whereas the rate of electron transfer from Mn(II) to the oxidized heme apparently is not affected.     

Manganese oxidation site in Pleurotus eryngii versatile peroxidase: a site-directed mutagenesis, kinetic, and crystallographic study

The molecular architecture of versatile peroxidase (VP) includes an exposed tryptophan responsible for aromatic substrate oxidation and a putative Mn2+ oxidation site. The crystal structures (solved up to 1.3 A) of wild-type and recombinant Pleurotus eryngii VP, before and after exposure to Mn2+, showed a variable orientation of the Glu36 and Glu40 side chains that, together with Asp175, contribute to Mn2+ coordination. To evaluate the involvement of these residues, site-directed mutagenesis was performed. The E36A, E40A, and D175A mutations caused a 60-85-fold decrease in Mn2+ affinity and a decrease in the Mn2+ oxidation activity. Transient-state kinetic constants showed that reduction of both compounds I and II was affected (80-325-fold lower k2app and 103-104-fold lower k3app, respectively). The single mutants retained partial Mn2+ oxidation activity, and a triple mutation (E36A/E40A/D175A) was required to completely suppress the activity (<1% kcat). The affinity for Mn2+ also decreased ( approximately 25-fold) with the shorter carboxylate side chain in the E36D and E40D variants, which nevertheless retained 30-50% of the maximal activity, whereas similar mutations caused a 50-100-fold decrease in kcat in the case of the Phanerochaete chrysosporium manganese peroxidase (MnP). Additional mutations showed that introduction of a basic residue near Asp175 did not improve Mn2+ oxidation as found for MnP and ruled out an involvement of the C-terminal tail of the protein in low-efficiency oxidation of Mn2+. The structural and kinetic data obtained highlighted significant differences in the Mn2+ oxidation site of the new versatile enzyme compared to P. chrysosporium MnP.     

Manganese(II) oxidation by manganese peroxidase from the basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Kinetic mechanism and role of chelators.

Manganese oxidation by manganese peroxidase (MnP) was investigated. Stoichiometric, kinetic, and MnII binding studies demonstrated that MnP has a single manganese binding site near the heme, and two MnIII equivalents are formed at the expense of one H2O2 equivalent. Since each catalytic cycle step is irreversible, the data fit a peroxidase ping-pong mechanism rather than an ordered bi-bi ping-pong mechanism. MnIII-organic acid complexes oxidize terminal phenolic substrates in a second-order reaction. MnIII-lactate and -tartrate also react slowly with H2O2, with third-order kinetics. The latter slow reaction does not interfere with the rapid MnP oxidation of phenols. Oxalate and malonate are the only organic acid chelators secreted by the fungus in significant amounts. No relationship between stimulation of enzyme activity and chelator size was found, suggesting that the substrate is free MnII rather than a MnII-chelator complex. The enzyme competes with chelators for free MnII. Optimal chelators, such as malonate, facilitate MnIII dissociation from the enzyme, stabilize MnIII in aqueous solution, and have a relatively low MnII binding constant.     

Role of axial ligands in the reactivity of Mn peroxidase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium.

Site-directed mutagenesis was performed on Mn peroxidase (MnP) from the white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium to investigate the role of the axial ligand hydrogen-bonding network on heme reactivity. D242 is hydrogen bonded to the proximal His of MnP; in other peroxidases, this conserved Asp, in turn, is hydrogen bonded to a Trp. In MnP and other fungal peroxidases, the Trp is replaced by a Phe (F190). Both residues are thought to have a direct influence on the electronic environment of the catalytic center. To study only the active mutants at D242 and F190, we used degenerate oligonucleotides allowing us to screen all 19 possible amino acid mutants at these positions. Two mutants at D242 passed our screen, D242E and D242S. Both mutations impaired only the functioning of compound II. The reactions of the ferric enzyme with H(2)O(2) were unaffected by the mutations, as were the reactions of compound I with reducing substrates. The D242S and D242E mutations reduced the first-order rate constant for the reaction of MnP compound II with chelated Mn(2+) from 233 s(-1) (wild type) to 154 s(-1) and 107 s(-1), respectively. Three F190 mutants passed our screen, F190V, F190L, and F190W. Similar to mutants at D242, these mutants largely affected the function of compound II. The F190V mutation increased the first-order rate constant for the reduction of compound II by chelated Mn(2+) to 320 s(-1). The F190L mutation decreased this rate to 137 s(-1). The F190W mutant was not very stable, but at pH 6.0, this mutation decreased the rate of compound II reduction by Mn(2+) from 140 s(-1) in the wild type to 36 s(-1). There was no indication that the F190W mutant was capable of forming a protein-centered Trp cation radical. All the mutations altered the midpoint potential of the Fe(3+)/Fe(2+) couple of the enzyme, as calculated from cyclic voltammagrams of the proteins. The values were shifted from -96 mV in the wild-type enzyme to -123 mV in D242S, -162 mV in D242E, -82 mV in F190L, -173 mV in F190V, and -51 mV in F190W. Collectively, these results demonstrate that D242 and F190 in MnP influence the electronic environment around the heme and that the reactions of compound II are far more sensitive to this influence than the reduction of compound I.     

Lignin peroxidase oxidation of veratryl alcohol: effects of the mutants H82A, Q222A, W171A, and F267L

The site-directed mutations H82A and Q222A (residues near the heme access channel), and W171A and F267L (residues near the surface of the protein) were introduced into the gene encoding lignin peroxidase (LiP) isozyme H8 from Phanerochaete chrysosporium. The variant enzymes were produced by homologous expression in P. chrysosporium, purified to homogeneity, and characterized by kinetic and spectroscopic methods. The molecular masses, the pIs, and the UV-vis absorption spectra of the ferric and oxidized states of these LiP variant enzymes were similar to those of wild-type LiP (wtLiP), suggesting the overall protein and heme environments were not significantly affected by these mutations. The steady-state and transient-state parameters for the oxidation of veratryl alcohol (VA) by the H82A and Q222A variants were very similar to those of wtLiP, demonstrating that these residues are not involved in VA oxidation and that the heme access channel is an unlikely site for VA oxidation. In contrast, the W171A variant was unable to oxidize VA, confirming the apparent essentiality of Trp171 in VA oxidation by LiP. The kinetic rates of spontaneous LiP compound I reduction in the absence of VA were similar for W171A and wild-type LiP, suggesting that there may not be a radical formed on the Trp171 residue of LiP in the absence of VA. For the F267L variant, both the K(m app) value in the steady state and the apparent dissociation constant (K(D)) for compound II reduction were greater than those for wtLiP. These results indicate that the site including W171 and F267, rather than the heme access channel, is the site of VA binding and oxidation in LiP. Whereas Trp171 appears to be essential for VA oxidation, it apparently is not independently responsible for the spontaneous decomposition of oxidized intermediates. The nearby Phe267 apparently is also involved in VA binding.     

Alteration of the regiospecificity of human heme oxygenase-1 by unseating of the heme but not disruption of the distal hydrogen bonding network

Heme oxygenase regiospecifically oxidizes heme at the alpha-meso position to give biliverdin IXalpha, CO, and iron. The heme orientation within the active site, which is thought to determine the oxidation regiospecificity, is shown here for the human enzyme (hHO1) to be largely determined by interactions between the heme carboxylic acid groups and residues Arg183 and Lys18 but not Tyr134. Mutation of either Arg183 or Lys18 individually does not significantly alter the NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase-dependent reaction regiochemistry but partially shifts the oxidation to the beta/delta-meso positions in the reaction supported by ascorbic acid. Mutation of Glu29 to a lysine, which places a positive charge where it can interact with a heme carboxyl if the heme rotates by approximately 90 degrees, causes a slight loss of regiospecificity but combined with the R183E and K18E mutations results primarily in beta/delta-meso oxidation of the heme under all conditions. NMR analysis of heme binding to the triple K18E/E29K/R183E mutant confirms rotation of the heme in the active site. Kinetic studies demonstrate that mutations of Arg183 greatly impair the rate of the P450 reductase-dependent reaction, in accord with the earlier finding that Arg183 is involved in binding of the reductase to hHO1, but have little effect on the ascorbate reaction. Mutations of Asp140 and Tyr58 that disrupt the active site hydrogen bonding network impair catalytic rates but do not influence the oxidation regiochemistry. The results indicate both that the oxidation regiochemistry is largely controlled by ionic interactions of the heme propionic acid groups with the protein and that shifts in regiospecificity involve rotation of the heme about an axis perpendicular to the heme plane.     

A proximal tryptophan in NO synthase controls activity by a novel mechanism

The heme of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) participates in O2 activation but also binds self-generated NO, resulting in reversible feedback inhibition. We utilized mutagenesis to investigate if a conserved tryptophan residue (Trp409), which engages in pi-stacking with the heme and hydrogen bonds to its axial cysteine ligand, helps control catalysis and regulation by NO. Mutants W409F and W409Y were hyperactive regarding NO synthesis without affecting cytochrome c reduction, reductase-independent N-hydroxyarginine oxidation, or Arg and tetrahydrobiopterin binding. In the absence of Arg electron flux through the heme was slower in the W409 mutants than in wild-type. However, less NO complex accumulated during NO synthesis by the mutants. To understand the mechanism, we compared the kinetics of heme-NO complex formation, rate of heme reduction, kcat prior to and after NO complex formation, NO binding affinity, NO complex stability, and its reaction with O2. During the initial phase of NO synthesis, heme-NO complex formation was three and five times slower in W409F and W409Y, which corresponded to a slower heme reduction. NO complex formation inhibited wild-type turnover 7-fold but reduced mutant turnover less than 2-fold, giving mutants higher steady-state activities. NO binding kinetics were similar among mutants and wild type, although mutants also formed a 417 nm ferrous-NO complex. Oxidation of ferrous-NO complex was seven times faster in mutants than in wild type. We conclude that mutant hyperactivity primarily derives from slower heme reduction and faster oxidation of the heme-NO complex by O2. In this way Trp409 mutations minimize NO feedback inhibition by limiting buildup of the ferrous-NO complex during the steady state. Conservation of W409 among NOS suggests that this proximal Trp may regulate NO feedback inhibition and is important for enzyme physiologic function.     

Mixed regioselectivity in the Arg-177 mutants of Corynebacterium diphtheriae heme oxygenase as a consequence of in-plane heme disorder

It has been reported that the R183E and R183D mutants of rat heme oxygenase-1 (r-HO-1) produce approximately 30% delta-biliverdin [Zhou, H., et al. (2000) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 122, 8311-8312]. Two plausible mechanisms were proposed to explain the observations. (a) Electrostatic repulsion between E183 (D183) and one of the heme propionates forces the heme to rotate, thereby placing the delta-meso carbon in a position that is susceptible to oxidation. (b) Rearrangement of the distal pocket structure is triggered by the formation of a hydrogen bond between E183 (D183) and K179. A change in the pK(a) for the Fe(III)-H(2)O to Fe(III)-OH transition of the mutants was interpreted to be consistent with rearrangement of the hydrogen bond network in the distal pocket. The large similarities between the high-frequency portion of the (1)H NMR spectra corresponding to the wild type and R183E and R183D mutants were interpreted to indicate that the heme in the mutants is not rotated to a significant extent. We have re-examined this issue by studying the corresponding R177 mutants in heme oxygenase from Corynebacterium diphtheriae (cd-HO). Replacing R177 with E or D results in the formation of approximately 55% alpha- and 45% delta-biliverdin, whereas the R177A mutant retains alpha-regioselectivity. In addition, the K13N/Y130F/R177A triple mutant catalyzed the formation of 60% delta- and 40% alpha-biliverdin, while single mutants K13N and Y130F did not appreciably change the regioselectivity of the reaction. The pK(a) of the Fe(III)-H(2)O to Fe(III)-OH transition in wild-type cd-HO is 9.1, and those of the R177E, R177D, R177A, and K13N/Y130F/R177A mutants are 9.4, 9.5, 9.2, and 8.0, respectively. Thus, no obvious correlation exists between the changes in pK(a) and the altered regioselectivity. NMR spectroscopic studies conducted with the R177D and R177E mutants of cd-HO revealed the presence of three heme isomers: a major (M) and a minor (m) heme orientational isomer related by a 180 degrees rotation about the alpha-gamma meso axis and an alternative seating (m') which is related to m by an 85 degrees in-plane rotation of the macrocycle. The in-plane rotation of m to acquire conformation m' is triggered by electrostatic repulsion between the side chains of D or E at position 177 and heme propionate-6. As a consequence, the delta-meso carbon in m' is placed in the position occupied by the alpha-meso carbon in m, where it is susceptible to hydroxylation and subsequent formation of delta-biliverdin.     

Engineering E. coli Alkaline Phosphatase Yields Changes of Catalytic Activity,Thermal Stability and Phosphate Inhibition

To investigate the function of aspartic acid residue 101 and arginine residue 166 in the active site of Escherichia coli alkaline phosphatase (EAP), two single mutants D101S (Asp 101 &#77 Ser) and R166K (Arg 166 &#77 Lys) and a double mutant D101S/R166K of EAP were generated through site-directed mutagenesis based on over-lap PCR method. Their enzymatic kinetic properties, thermal stabilities and possible reaction mechanism were explored. In the presence of inorganic phosphate acceptor, 1 M diethanolamine buffer, the k cat for D101S mutant enzyme increased 10-fold compared to that of wild-type EAP. The mutant R166K has a 2-fold decrease of k cat relative to the wild-type EAP, but the double mutant D101S/R166K was in the middle of them, indicative of an additive effect of these two mutations. On the other hand, the catalytic efficiencies of mutant enzymes are all reduced because of a substantial increase of K m values. All three mutants were more resistant to phosphate inhibitor than the wild-type enzyme. The analysis of the kinetic data suggests that (1) the D101S mutant enzyme obtains a higher catalytic activity by allowing a faster release of the product; (2) the R166K mutant enzyme can reduce the binding of the substrate and phosphate competitive inhibitor; (3) the double mutant enzyme has characteristics of both quicker catalytic turnover number and decreased affinity for competitive inhibitor. Additionally, pre-steady-state kinetics of D101S and D101S/R166K mutants revealed a transient burst followed by a linear steady state phase, obviously different from that of wild-type EAP, suggesting that the rate-limiting step has partially change from the release of phosphate from non-covalent E-Pi complex to the hydrolysis of covalent E-Pi complex for these two mutants.     

Engineering E. coli Alkaline Phosphatase Yields Changes of Catalytic Activity, Thermal Stability and Phosphate Inhibition

To investigate the function of aspartic acid residue 101 and arginine residue 166 in the active site of Escherichia coli alkaline phosphatase (EAP), two single mutants D101S (Asp 101 →Ser) and R166K (Arg 166 →Lys) and a double mutant D101S/R166K of EAP were generated through site-directed mutagenesis based on over-lap PCR method. Their enzymatic kinetic properties, thermal stabilities and possible reaction mechanism were explored. In the presence of inorganic phosphate acceptor, 1 M diethanolamine buffer, the k cat for D101S mutant enzyme increased 10-fold compared to that of wild-type EAP. The mutant R166K has a 2-fold decrease of k cat relative to the wild-type EAP, but the double mutant D101S/R166K was in the middle of them, indicative of an additive effect of these two mutations. On the other hand, the catalytic efficiencies of mutant enzymes are all reduced because of a substantial increase of K m values. All three mutants were more resistant to phosphate inhibitor than the wild-type enzyme. The analysis of the kinetic data suggests that (1) the D101S mutant enzyme obtains a higher catalytic activity by allowing a faster release of the product; (2) the R166K mutant enzyme can reduce the binding of the substrate and phosphate competitive inhibitor; (3) the double mutant enzyme has characteristics of both quicker catalytic turnover number and decreased affinity for competitive inhibitor. Additionally, pre-steady-state kinetics of D101S and D101S/R166K mutants revealed a transient burst followed by a linear steady state phase, obviously different from that of wild-type EAP, suggesting that the rate-limiting step has partially change from the release of phosphate from non-covalent E-Pi complex to the hydrolysis of covalent E-Pi complex for these two mutants.     

Analysis of the role of the active site residue Arg98 in the flavoprotein tryptophan 2-monooxygenase, a member of the L-amino oxidase family

The flavoprotein tryptophan 2-monooxygenase catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of tryptophan to indoleacetamide. We have previously identified tryptophan 2-monooxygenase as a homologue of L-amino acid oxidase [Sobrado, P., and Fitzpatrick, P. F. (2002) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 402, 24-30]. On the basis of the sequence comparisons of the different LAAO family members, Arg98 of tryptophan 2-monooxygenase can be identified as an active site residue which interacts with the carboxylate of the amino acid substrate. The catalytic properties of R98K and R98A tryptophan 2-monooxygenase have been characterized to evaluate the role of this residue. Mutation of Arg98 to lysine decreases the first-order rate constant for flavin reduction by 180-fold and the second-order rate constant for flavin oxidation by 26-fold, has no significant effect on the K(d) value for tryptophan or the K(i) value for the competitive inhibitor indoleacetamide, and increases the K(i) value for indolepyruvate less than 2-fold. Mutation of this residue to alanine decreases the rate constants for reduction and oxidation an additional 5- and 2-fold, respectively, and increases the K(d) value for tryptophan and the K(i) value for indolepyruvate by 31- and 17-fold, respectively, while having an only 2-fold effect on the K(i) value for indoleacetamide. Both mutations increase the value of the primary deuterium isotope effect with tryptophan as a substrate, consistent with a later transition state. Both mutant enzymes catalyze a simple oxidase reaction, producing indolepyruvate and hydrogen peroxide. The pH dependences of the V/K(trp) values for the mutant enzymes show that the anionic form of the substrate is preferred but that the zwitterionic form is a substrate. The results are consistent with the interaction between Arg98 and the carboxylate of the amino acid substrate being critical for correct positioning of the substrate in the active site for efficient catalysis.     

Role of disulfide bonds in the stability of recombinant manganese peroxidase.

Phanerochaete chrysosporium manganese peroxidase (MnP) [isoenzyme H4] was engineered with additional disulfide bonds to provide structural reinforcement to the proximal and distal calcium-binding sites. This rational protein engineering investigated the effects of multiple disulfide bonds on the stabilization of the enzyme heme environment and oxidase activity. Stabilization of the heme environment was monitored by UV-visible spectroscopy based on the electronic state of the alkaline transition species of ferric and ferrous enzyme. The optical spectral data confirm an alkaline transition to hexacoordinate, low-spin heme species for native and wild-type MnP and show that the location of the engineered disulfide bonds in the protein can have significant effects on the electronic state of the enzyme. The addition of a single disulfide bond in the distal region of MnP resulted in an enzyme that maintained a pentacoordinate, high-spin heme at pH 9.0, whereas MnP with multiple engineered disulfide bonds did not exhibit an increase in stability of the pentacoordinate, high-spin state of the enzyme at alkaline pH. The mutant enzymes were assessed for increased stability by incubation at high pH. In comparison to wild-type MnP, enzymes containing engineered disulfide bonds in the distal and proximal regions of the protein retained greater levels of activity when restored to physiological pH. Additionally, when assayed for oxidase activity at pH 9.0, proteins containing engineered disulfide bonds exhibited slower rates of inactivation than wild-type MnP.     

Tryptophan 409 controls the activity of neuronal nitric-oxide synthase by regulating nitric oxide feedback inhibition.

The heme of neuronal nitric-oxide synthase participates in oxygen activation but also binds self-generated NO during catalysis resulting in reversible feedback inhibition. We utilized point mutagenesis to investigate if a conserved tryptophan residue (Trp-409), which engages in pi-stacking with the heme and hydrogen bonds to its axial cysteine ligand, helps control catalysis and regulation by NO. Surprisingly, mutants W409F and W409Y were hyperactive compared with the wild type regarding NO synthesis without affecting cytochrome c reduction, reductase-independent N-hydroxyarginine oxidation, or Arg and tetrahydrobiopterin binding. In the absence of Arg, NADPH oxidation measurements showed that electron flux through the heme was actually slower in the Trp-409 mutants than in wild-type nNOS. However, little or no NO complex accumulated during NO synthesis by the mutants, as opposed to the wild type. This difference was potentially related to mutants forming unstable 6-coordinate ferrous-NO complexes under anaerobic conditions even in the presence of Arg and tetrahydrobiopterin. Thus, Trp-409 mutations minimize NO feedback inhibition by preventing buildup of an inactive ferrous-NO complex during the steady state. This overcomes the negative effect of the mutation on electron flux and results in hyperactivity. Conservation of Trp-409 among different NOS suggests that the ability of this residue to regulate heme reduction and NO complex formation is important for enzyme physiologic function.     

Mechanism for oxidation of high-molecular-weight substrates by a fungal versatile peroxidase, MnP2

Unlike general peroxidases, Pleurotus ostreatus MnP2 was reported to have a unique property of direct oxidization of high-molecular-weight compounds, such as Poly R-478 and RNase A. To elucidate the mechanism for oxidation of polymeric substrates by MnP2, a series of mutant enzymes were produced by using a homologous gene expression system, and their reactivities were characterized. A mutant enzyme with an Ala substituting for an exposing Trp (W170A) drastically lost oxidation activity for veratryl alcohol (VA), Poly R-478, and RNase A, whereas the kinetic properties for Mn(2+) and H(2)O(2) were substantially unchanged. These results demonstrated that, in addition to VA, the high-molecular-weight substrates are directly oxidized by MnP2 at W170. Moreover, in the mutants Q266F and V166/168L, amino acid substitution(s) around W170 resulted in a decreased activity only for the high-molecular-weight substrates. These results, along with the three-dimensional modeling of the mutants, suggested that the mutations caused a steric hindrance to access of the polymeric substrates to W170. Another mutant, R263N, contained a newly generated N glycosylation site and showed a higher molecular mass in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis. Interestingly, the R263N mutant exhibited an increased reactivity with VA and high-molecular-weight substrates. The existence of an additional carbohydrate modification and the catalytic properties in this mutant are discussed. This is the first study of a direct mechanism for oxidation of high-molecular-weight substrates by a fungal peroxidase using a homologous gene expression system.     

Engineering a disulfide bond in recombinant manganese peroxidase results in increased thermostability

Manganese peroxidase (MnP) produced by Phanerochaete chrysosporium, which catalyzes the oxidation of Mn(2+) to Mn(3+) by hydrogen peroxide, was shown to be susceptible to thermal inactivation due to the loss of calcium [Sutherland, G. R. J.; Aust, S. D. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1996, 332, 128-134]. The recombinant enzyme, lacking glycosylation, was found to be more susceptible [Nie, G.; Reading, N. S.; Aust, S. D. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1999, 365, 328-334]. On the basis of the properties and structure of peanut peroxidase, we have engineered a disulfide bond near the distal calcium binding site of MnP by means of the double mutation A48C and A63C. The mutant enzyme had activity and spectral properties similar to those of native, glycosylated MnP. The thermostabilities of native, recombinant, and mutant MnP were studied as a function of temperature and pH. MnPA48C/A63C exhibited kinetics of inactivation similar to that of native MnP. The addition of calcium decreased the rate of thermal inactivation of the enzymes, while EGTA increased the rate of inactivation. Thermally treated MnPA48C/A63C mutant was shown to contain one calcium, and it retained a percentage of its original manganese oxidase activity; native and recombinant MnP were inactivated by the removal of calcium from the protein.     

Critical role of the heme axial ligand, Met95, in locking catalysis of the phosphodiesterase from Escherichia coli (Ec DOS) toward Cyclic diGMP

Heme-regulated phosphodiesterase from Escherichia coli (Ec DOS) is a gas-sensor enzyme that hydrolyzes cyclic dinucleotide-GMP, and it is activated by O(2) or CO binding to the Fe(II) heme. In contrast to other well known heme-regulated gas-sensor enzymes or proteins, Ec DOS is not specific for a single gas ligand. Because Arg(97) in the heme distal side in Ec DOS interacts with the O(2) molecule and Met(95) serves as the axial ligand on the distal side of the Fe(II) heme-bound PAS domain of Ec DOS, we explored the effect of mutating these residues on the activity and gas specificity of Ec DOS. We found that R97A, R97I, and R97E mutations do not significantly affect regulation of the phosphodiesterase activities of the Fe(II)-CO and Fe(II)-NO complexes. The phosphodiesterase activities of the Fe(II)-O(2) complexes of the mutants could not be detected due to rapid autoxidation and/or low affinity for O(2). In contrast, the activities even of the gas-free M95A and M95L mutants were similar to that of the gas-activated wild-type enzyme. Interestingly, the activity of the M95H mutant was partially activated by O(2), CO, and NO. Spectroscopic analysis indicated that the Fe(II) heme is in the 5-coordinated high-spin state in the M95A and M95L mutants but that in the M95H mutant, like wild-type Ec DOS, it is in the 6-coordinated low-spin state. These results suggest that Met(95) coordination to the Fe(II) heme is critical for locking the system and that global structural changes around Met(95) caused by the binding of the external ligands or mutations at Met(95) releases the catalytic lock and activates catalysis.     

Effect of single-site charge-reversal mutations on the catalytic properties of yeast cytochrome c peroxidase: evidence for a single, catalytically active, cytochrome c binding domain

Forty-six charge-reversal mutants of yeast cytochrome c peroxidase (CcP) have been constructed in order to determine the effect of localized charge on the catalytic properties of the enzyme. The mutants include the conversion of all 20 glutamate residues and 24 of the 25 aspartate residues in CcP, one at a time, to lysine residues. In addition, two positive-to-negative charge-reversal mutants, R31E and K149D, are included in the study. The mutants have been characterized by absorption spectroscopy and hydrogen peroxide reactivity at pH 6.0 and 7.5 and by steady-state kinetic studies using recombinant yeast iso-1 ferrocytochrome c (C102T) as substrate at pH 7.5. Many of the charge-reversal mutations cause detectable changes in the absorption spectrum of the enzyme reflecting increased amounts of hexacoordinate heme compared to wild-type CcP. The increase in hexacoordinate heme in the mutant enzymes correlates with an increase in H 2O 2-inactive enzyme. The maximum velocity of the mutants decreases with increasing hexacoordination of the heme group. Steady-state velocity studies indicate that 5 of the 46 mutations (R31E, D34K, D37K, E118K, and E290K) cause large increases in the Michaelis constant indicating a reduced affinity for cytochrome c. Four of the mutations occur within the cytochrome c binding site identified in the crystal structure of the 1:1 complex of yeast cytochrome c and CcP [Pelletier, H., and Kraut, J. (1992) Science 258, 1748-1755] while the fifth mutation site lies outside, but near, the crystallographic site. These data support the hypothesis that the CcP has a single, catalytically active cytochrome c binding domain, that observed in the crystal structures of the cytochrome c/CcP complex.     

Mutations at Arginine 276 transform human uracil-DNA glycosylase into a single-stranded DNA-specific uracil-DNA glycosylase

To investigate the role of Arginine 276 in the conserved leucine-loop of human uracil-DNA glycosylase (UNG), the effects of six R276 amino acid substitutions (C, E, H, L, W, and Y) on nucleotide flipping and enzyme conformational change were determined using transient and steady state, fluorescence-based, kinetic analysis. Relative to UNG, the mutant proteins exhibited a 2.6- to 7.7-fold reduction in affinity for a doubled-stranded oligonucleotide containing a pseudouracil residue opposite 2-aminopurine, as judged by steady-state DNA binding-base flipping assays. An anisotropy binding assay was utilized to determine the K(d) of UNG and the R276 mutants for carboxyfluorescein-labeled uracil-containing single- and double-stranded oligonucleotides; the binding affinities varied 11-fold for single-stranded uracil-DNA, and 43-fold for double-stranded uracil-DNA. Productive uracil-DNA binding was monitored by rapid quenching of UNG intrinsic protein fluorescence. Relative to UNG, the rate of intrinsic fluorescence quenching of five mutant proteins for binding double-stranded uracil-DNA was reduced approximately 50%; the R276E mutant exhibited 1% of the rate of fluorescence quenching of UNG. When reacted with single-stranded uracil-DNA, the rate of UNG fluorescence quenching increased. Moreover, the rate of fluorescence quenching for all the mutant proteins, except R276E, was slightly faster than UNG. The k(cat) of the R276 mutants was comparable to UNG on single-stranded DNA and differentially affected by NaCl; however, k(cat) on double-stranded DNA substrate was reduced 4-12-fold and decreased sharply at NaCl concentrations as low as 20 mM. Taken together, these results indicate that the effects of mutations at Arg276 were largely limited to enzyme interactions with double-stranded uracil-containing DNA, and suggested that mutations at Arg276 effectively transformed UNG into a single-stranded DNA-specific uracil-DNA glycosylase.     

Luminol activity of horseradish peroxidase mutants mimicking a proposed binding site for luminol in Arthromyces ramosus peroxidase.

To enhance the oxidation activity for luminol in horseradish peroxidase (HRP), we have prepared three HRP mutants by mimicking a possible binding site for luminol in Arthromyces ramosus peroxidase (ARP) which shows 500-fold higher oxidation activity for luminol than native HRP. Spectroscopic studies by (1)H NMR revealed that the chemical shifts of 7-propionate and 8-methyl protons of the heme in cyanide-ligated ARP were deviated upon addition of luminol (4 mM), suggesting that the charged residues, Lys49 and Glu190, which are located near the 7-propionate and 8-methyl groups of the heme, are involved in the specific binding to luminol. The positively charged Lys and negatively charged Glu were introduced into the corresponding positions of Ser35 (S35K) and Gln176 (Q176E) in HRP, respectively, to build the putative binding site for luminol. A double mutant, S35K/Q176E, in which both Ser35 and Gln176 were replaced, was also prepared. Addition of luminol to the HRP mutants induced more pronounced effects on the resonances from the heme substituents and heme environmental residues in the (1)H NMR spectra than that to the wild-type enzyme, indicating that the mutations in this study induced interactions with luminol in the vicinity of the heme. The catalytic efficiencies (V(max)/K(m)) for luminol oxidation of the S35K and S35K/Q176E mutants were 1.5- and 2-fold improved, whereas that of the Q176E mutant was slightly depressed. The increase in luminol activity of the S35K and S35K/Q176E mutants was rather small but significant, suggesting that the electrostatic interactions between the positive charge of Lys35 and the negative charge of luminol can contribute to the effective binding for the luminol oxidation. On the other hand, the negatively charged residue would not be so crucial for the luminol oxidation. The absence of drastic improvement in the luminol activity suggests that introduction of the charged residues into the heme vicinity is not enough to enhance the oxidation activity for luminol as observed for ARP.