Moths in fragments: insights into the biology and ecology of the Australian endangered golden sun moth Synemon plana (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) in natural temperate and exotic grassland remnants

The conservation and management of endangered species requires an adequate understanding of their biology and ecology. Although there has been an increasing appreciation in Australia of the need for greater efforts to conserve insects, there is only limited information available that can be used to underpin conservation efforts. The endangered golden sun moth, Synemon plana (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) is a flagship species endemic to natural temperate grassland in south-eastern Australia. Most populations of this species are at considerable risk from habitat loss, weed invasion and inadequate management. Despite the considerable knowledge that exists about the species biology and ecology, efforts to improve the species conservation status are hampered because there are still critical gaps in our understanding of the species’ natural history. In particular, the ecology of the larvae is not known. Our study examined the abundance, population structure and reproductive biology of the moths in a broad sample of both natural temperate and exotic grassland remnants in and near Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) in south-eastern Australia. The results fill critical gaps in the knowledge needed to achieve effective conservation management. From our findings, it is clear that the species inhabits grasslands dominated by a mixture of native wallaby grasses (Rytidosperma spp. (formerly Austrodanthonia)) and spear grasses (Austrostipa spp.). In contrast to earlier suggestions that S. plana is entirely confined to natural temperate grassland, mature and immature life stages of the species were also present in grasslands comprised entirely of the exotic Chilean needlegrass (Nassella neesiana). Most of the S. plana populations surveyed in the ACT were characterised by low relative abundance with only very few large populations being recorded. The conservation of exotic grasslands as substitute habitat for S. plana is discussed and suggestions regarding future monitoring and research of the species are provided.     

A citizen science approach to long-term monitoring of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) off Sydney,Australia

The Cape Solander Whale Migration Study is a citizen science project that annually counts northward migrating humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) off Cape Solander, Sydney, Australia. Dedicated observers have compiled a 20-year data set (1997–2017) of shore-based observations from Cape Solander's high vantage point. Using this long-term data set collected by citizen scientists, we sought to estimate the humpback whale population trend as it continues to recover postexploitation. We estimated an exponential growth rate of 0.099 (95% CI = 0.079–0.119) using a generalized linear model, based on observer effort (number of observation days) and number of whales observed, equating to 10% per annum growth in sightings since 1997. We found that favorable weather conditions for spotting whales off Cape Solander consisted of winds <30 km/hr from a southerly through a north westerly direction. Incidental observations of other cetacean species included the endangered blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) and data deficient species such as killer whales (Orcinus orca) and false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens). Citizen science-based studies can provide a cost-effective approach to monitoring wildlife over the time necessary to detect change in a population. Information obtained from citizen science projects like this may help inform policy makers responsible for State and Federal protection of cetaceans in Australian waters and beyond.     

Restoration of a Native Grassland as Habitat for the Golden Sun Moth Synemon plana Walker (Lepidoptera; Castniidae) at Mount Piper, Australia

Synemon plana (golden sun moth) is a small diurnal moth from the family Castniidae, now listed as endangered in all regions of southeastern Australia in which it occurs. This study details an attempt to restore the native grassland habitat of S. plana at one site by increasing the cover of its probable food plant, Austrodanthonia eriantha (wallaby grass), to at least 40%, the average percentage cover determined from all currently inhabited sites. The percentage cover of A. eriantha increased when seedlings were planted, although there was no significant increase in cover by seeding caryopsides (dispersal units) or by weeding. However, combining weeding with planting seedlings, or seeding increased cover by 22% and 27% to 43% and 64%, respectively. Two hundred caryopsides per square meter (compared with only 49 seedlings/m²) were required to increase cover to at least 40% due to the low viability of seeds and low germination in the field. Therefore, to restore grasslands dominated by A. eriantha as suitable habitat for S. plana, seedlings should be planted and weeds removed.     

Mayan diver-fishers as citizen scientists: detection and monitoring of the invasive red lionfish in the Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes,southern Gulf of Mexico

Biological invasions research has increasingly incorporated the participation of citizen scientists to collect data for monitoring and management purposes. This study outlines collaborative efforts with Mayan lobster diver-fishers, who participated voluntarily as citizen scientists in surveys, to detect and monitor the invasive red lionfish, Pterois volitans, in a marine protected area off the northern Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. We engaged these fishers by building local capacity and awareness of the threats of the lionfish invasion on the fishery resources of the area. During the lobster fishing season (July 2010–February 2011), 30 fishers collected 248 red lionfish (9–29 cm TL) and recorded ancillary data (day, month, depth, and approximate coordinates of capture site). This collaboration not only allowed the first lionfish detection in the Parque Nacional Arrecife Alacranes in 2010, but the volunteer-based monitoring effort revealed that the invasion reached levels from intermediate to advanced, with more than 200 specimens captured in less than a year. Our results support the notion that engaging citizen scientists can enhance research, reduce costs, and improve the possibility of a long term monitoring survey.     

Seasonal variations in intermediatory metabolism of the bivalves Cerastoderma edule and Scrobicularia plana during exposure to air

Seasonal changes in the operation of the succinate pathway by different tissues of two species of bivalve molluscs (Cerastoderma edule (L.) and Scrobicularia plana) were investigated. No significant changes were observed in tissues of C. edule. However, there were significant seasonal changes in the operation of the pathway by tissues of S. plana. The succinate pathway operates in S. plana at a higher rate in summer and autumn than in witer. The results are discussed in relation to food availability, temperature and the reproductive cycle.     

Diet Switching by Mammalian Herbivores in Response to Exotic Grass Invasion

Invasion by exotic grasses is a severe threat to the integrity of grassland ecosystems all over the world. Because grasslands are typically grazed by livestock and wildlife, the invasion is a community process modulated by herbivory. We hypothesized that the invasion of native South American grasslands by Eragrostis plana Nees, an exotic tussock-forming grass from Africa, could be deterred by grazing if grazers switched dietary preferences and included the invasive grass as a large proportion of their diets. Bos taurus (heifers) and Ovis aries (ewes) grazed plots with varying degrees of invasion by E. plana in a replicated manipulative experiment. Animal positions and species grazed were observed every minute in 45-min grazing session. Proportion of bites and steps in and out of E. plana tussocks were measured and used to calculate several indices of selectivity. Both heifers and ewes exhibited increasing probability of grazing E. plana as the proportion of area covered by tussocks increased, but they behaved differently. In agreement with expectations based on the allometry of dietary preferences and morphology, ewes consumed a low proportion of E. plana, except in areas that had more than 90% E. plana cover. Heifers consumed proportionally more E. plana than ewes. Contrary to our hypothesis, herbivores did not exhibit dietary switching towards the invasive grass. Moreover, they exhibited avoidance of the invasive grass and preference for short-statured native species, both of which should tend to enhance invasion. Unless invasive plants are highly palatable to livestock, the effect of grazing to deter the invasion is limited, due to the inherent avoidance of the invasive grass by the main grazers in the ecosystem, particularly sheep.     

A dedicated reserve for conservation of two species of Synemon (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) in Australia

Introductory notes on the family Castniidae are followed by some general information on the Pale Sun-moth, Synemon selene (Klug 1850) and the Golden Sun-moth, Synemon plana (Walker 1854). An account is given of the discovery of an extant population of the Nhill Morph of S. selene. The remainder of this work documents steps that have been taken to establish a 4.5 ha reserve at Nhill in western Victoria, to meet the urgent conservation needs of this taxon and asympatrically occurring population of S. plana. Some management issues that concern these two grassland-dependent Synemon species at Nhill are also discussed.     

Fatty acids’ profiles as indicators of stress induced by of a common herbicide on two marine bivalves species: Cerastoderma edule (Linnaeus, 1758) and Scrobicularia plana (da Costa, 1778)

In Europe, mainly the Mediterranean region, intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides has been recorded over the past 30 years, exceeding, in some cases, the limits of contamination authorized by the European Union. The intensive use of pollutants in fields near ecological coastal wetlands has led to implementation of pesticide monitoring programs to recover aquatic systems such as the Mondego estuary (Figueira da Foz, Portugal). According to information from the agricultural cooperatives of the Mondego valley, Primextra^® Gold TZ is the most-used herbicide in corn crop fields. Biomarkers, such fatty acids (FAs), proved to be new and potentially powerful tools to detect, illustrate, and evaluate exposure to and the effects of contamination hazards. They play important roles in establishing neural levels in organisms’ biochemical and physiological responses and are considered good bio-indicators of stress and potential indicators of ecosystem health. Bivalves are currently used in ecotoxicological bioassays because of their ecological importance, wide geographic distribution, ease of handling in the laboratory and in the field, and their ability to filter and ingest large volumes of water and sediment particles. Thus, the main goal of this work was to determine the toxic and biochemical (namely fatty acid profiles) responses of two size classes (small and big) of the two marine bivalve species Cerastoderma edule and Scrobicularia plana to the herbicide Primextra^® Gold. Furthermore, we aimed to compare the fatty acid contents, and thus the nutritive values, of both species and size classes collected in the field with those under laboratory conditions. Results show S. plana is more sensitive to the herbicide than C. edule. In general, among the larger-sized specimens in the field, S. plana is more nutritive than C. edule, but among the smaller-sized specimens, the opposite tendency is seen, where C. edule presents a greater abundance of FAs.     

Chimpanzee identification and social network construction through an online citizen science platform

Citizen science has grown rapidly in popularity in recent years due to its potential to educate and engage the public while providing a means to address a myriad of scientific questions. However, the rise in popularity of citizen science has also been accompanied by concerns about the quality of data emerging from citizen science research projects. We assessed data quality in the online citizen scientist platform Chimp&See, which hosts camera trap videos of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and other species across Equatorial Africa. In particular, we compared detection and identification of individual chimpanzees by citizen scientists with that of experts with years of experience studying those chimpanzees. We found that citizen scientists typically detected the same number of individual chimpanzees as experts, but assigned far fewer identifications (IDs) to those individuals. Those IDs assigned, however, were nearly always in agreement with the IDs provided by experts. We applied the data sets of citizen scientists and experts by constructing social networks from each. We found that both social networks were relatively robust and shared a similar structure, as well as having positively correlated individual network positions. Our findings demonstrate that, although citizen scientists produced a smaller data set based on fewer confirmed IDs, the data strongly reflect expert classifications and can be used for meaningful assessments of group structure and dynamics. This approach expands opportunities for social research and conservation monitoring in great apes and many other individually identifiable species.     

New World Stictocladius Edwards (Diptera: Chironomidae)

The orthocladiine Chironomidae genus Stictocladius Edwards was described originally from South America. Although recognised subsequently as present also in Australia and New Zealand, the true diversity in the Neotropics has remained unclear. After more than a decade of collections of both isolated adults and aquatic immature stages, we can recognise several new taxa and associate some immature stages. Thus, we describe Stictocladius prati n. sp. as male, female, pupa and larva; Stictocladius acutus n. sp. and Stictocladius acrilobus n. sp. as male, female and pupa; Stictocladius fimbriatus n. sp. as male and female; Stictocladius fovigus n. sp. and Stictocladius nudiventer n. sp. as male and pupa; and Stictocladius privicalcar n. sp. and Stictocladius prostatus n. sp. each as male imago alone. The male and female of Stictocladius pulchripennis Edwards is redescribed and the pupa described. The male and female of Stictocladius flavozonatus Edwards and the male of Stictocladius calonotum Edwards are described. Five pupal types are described: Stictocladius sp. A (near S. acrilobus), Stictocladius sp. B (possibly S. calonotum), Stictocladius sp. C (near S. calonotum), Stictocladius sp. D (possibly S. flavozonatus) and Stictocladius sp. E with uncertain affinity. A larva from Chile of the Stictocladius ??sofour type?? (Stictocladius sp. F) and an unreared larva from North America (Stictocladius sp. G) possibly belonging to S. acutus are described. Keys to named Neotropical male and female imagines of Stictocladius and to all pupal forms of Neotropical Stictocladius are provided. Some data concerning fourth instars of Stictocladius are presented. Means of differentiation from putative sister taxon Lopescladius are discussed.     

Science and Practice in NRM: Insights from connectivity restoration in the south west slopes of NSW

Interactions between landholders, practitioners and research scientists have greatly influenced landscape restoration activities in South‐eastern Australia. Vegetation connectivity projects undertaken by Holbrook Landcare Network in the Slopes to Summit (S2S) region of South‐eastern Australia have benefitted from the input of both scientists and practitioners. This paper explores what factors support an evidence‐informed restoration outcome, what constrains this and what we can learn from this case.     

Focal Plant Observations as a Standardised Method for Pollinator Monitoring: Opportunities and Limitations for Mass Participation Citizen Science

BackgroundRecently there has been increasing focus on monitoring pollinating insects, due to concerns about their declines, and interest in the role of volunteers in monitoring pollinators, particularly bumblebees, via citizen science.

Methodology / Principal Findings

The Big Bumblebee Discovery was a one-year citizen science project run by a partnership of EDF Energy, the British Science Association and the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology which sought to assess the influence of the landscape at multiple scales on the diversity and abundance of bumblebees. Timed counts of bumblebees (Bombus spp.; identified to six colour groups) visiting focal plants of lavender (Lavendula spp.) were carried out by about 13 000 primary school children (7–11 years old) from over 4000 schools across the UK. 3948 reports were received totalling 26 868 bumblebees. We found that while the wider landscape type had no significant effect on reported bumblebee abundance, the local proximity to flowers had a significant effect (fewer bumblebees where other flowers were reported to be >5m away from the focal plant). However, the rate of mis-identifcation, revealed by photographs uploaded by participants and a photo-based quiz, was high.

Conclusions / Significance

Our citizen science results support recent research on the importance of local flocal resources on pollinator abundance. Timed counts of insects visiting a lure plant is potentially an effective approach for standardised pollinator monitoring, engaging a large number of participants with a simple protocol. However, the relatively high rate of mis-identifications (compared to reports from previous pollinator citizen science projects) highlights the importance of investing in resources to train volunteers. Also, to be a scientifically valid method for enquiry, citizen science data needs to be sufficiently high quality, so receiving supporting evidence (such as photographs) would allow this to be tested and for records to be verified.     

Anaerobic metabolism of bivalve molluscs during exposure to air

The anaerobic metabolism of Mytilus edulis, Cardium edule, Scrobicularia plana and Macoma balthica was investigated. On exposure to the atmosphere, all of these species were found to be able to utilise ¹⁴CO₂. This suggests that these species gape during exposure to the atmosphere. A comparative study on the pattern of ¹⁴C incorporation suggests that there is a similarity between M. edulis and S. plana in the extent of the utilization of the succinate pathway during exposure to air. However C. edule and M. balthica were also similar in the extent of utilizing the succinate pathway, even though there were significant species differences between the similar animals. It is suggested that exposure in S. plana represents a stressful situation and that this species might react to this stress by utilizing the succinate pathway. A higher incorporation of radiocarbon into alanine by M. balthica could be due to high activity of the enzymes that control the reactions leading to production of radioactive pyruvate.     

The internal microbial flora of the elm bark beetle, Scolytus scolytus, at all stages of its development

Adult Scolytus scolytus emerged from the pupal stage with sterile guts although microorganisms were present within the pupal body. Gut sterility was maintained in a large proportion of newly formed adults while they were boring out of an elm log. The adult gut microbial flora is mainly acquired during subsequent feeding. Differences were found between the microbial gut flora of both larvae and adult S. scolytus, and of both male and female beetles.     

Pheromone mass trapping of bagworm moths,Metisa plana Walker (Lepidoptera: Psychidae), for its control in mature oil palms in Perak,Malaysia

The bagworm, Metisa plana Walker (Lepidoptera: Psychidae), is an important pest of oil palms in Malaysia. A serious infestation cause yield declines of 30–40% over 2 years after attack. Successful mass trapping depends on efficient removal of adults, which reduces the chances of mating, eventually causing a decline in the population. This study was conducted in three smallholder blocks where palm age varied from 6 to 16 years. Sticky vane traps were baited with four receptive females of M. plana and placed in three transects within each trapping plot. The percentage of female bags with eggs (i.e., those pupal bags housing the female with eggs that hatched) determined the effects of trapping on mating and reproduction success. Palm yield was compared between the trapping and control plots. The number of live larvae and the percentage of bags with eggs in the trapping plots were always relatively lower (9.1–28.2%) compared to the control plots (28.6–48.6%). Trapping plots had relatively higher bunch weight (7.8–14.3 kg) compared to the control plots (4.5–9.2 kg). The bunch weight in the trapping plots increased 22% after trapping compared to 15% in the control plot. Damage ratings on the fronds declined between 35–45% in the trapping blocks. Damage ratings declined between 20% and 27% in most control plots but increased 17% in one of the blocks with an increased bagworm population. There, mass trapping reduces the chances of bagworm mating and oviposition, which leads to lower populations and, therefore, lower frond damage and higher yields.     

Reduction of Pulmonary Toxicity of Stachybotrys chartarum Spores by Methanol Extraction of Mycotoxins

The fungus Stachybotrys chartarum has been implicated in cases of nonspecific indoor air quality complaints in adults and in cases of pulmonary hemorrhaging in infants. The effects that have been described have been attributed to mycotoxins. Previous dose-effect studies focused on exposure to a single mycotoxin in a solvent, a strategy which is unlikely to accurately characterize the effects of inhaled spores. In this study we examined the role of mycotoxins in the pulmonary effects caused by S. chartarum spores and the dose dependency of these effects. S. chartarum spores were extracted in methanol to reduce the mycotoxin content of the spores. Then either untreated (toxin-containing) or methanol-extracted S. chartarum spores were intratracheally instilled into male 10-week-old Charles River-Dawley rats. After 24 h, the lungs were lavaged, and the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was analyzed to determine differences in lactic dehydrogenase, albumin, hemoglobin, myeloperoxidase, and leukocyte differential counts. Weight change was also monitored. Our data show that methanol extraction dramatically reduced the toxicity of S. chartarum spores. No statistically significant effects were observed in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluids of the animals that were treated with methanol-extracted spores at any dose. Conversely, dose-dependent effects of the toxin-containing spores were observed when we examined the lactic dehydrogenase, albumin, and hemoglobin concentrations, the polymorphonuclear leukocyte counts, and weight loss. Our findings show that a single, intense exposure to toxin-containing S. chartarum spores results in pulmonary inflammation and injury in a dose-dependent manner. Importantly, the effects are related to methanol-soluble toxins in the spores.     

Citizen Science as a New Tool in Dog Cognition Research

Family dogs and dog owners offer a potentially powerful way to conduct citizen science to answer questions about animal behavior that are difficult to answer with more conventional approaches. Here we evaluate the quality of the first data on dog cognition collected by citizen scientists using the Dognition.com website. We conducted analyses to understand if data generated by over 500 citizen scientists replicates internally and in comparison to previously published findings. Half of participants participated for free while the other half paid for access. The website provided each participant a temperament questionnaire and instructions on how to conduct a series of ten cognitive tests. Participation required internet access, a dog and some common household items. Participants could record their responses on any PC, tablet or smartphone from anywhere in the world and data were retained on servers. Results from citizen scientists and their dogs replicated a number of previously described phenomena from conventional lab-based research. There was little evidence that citizen scientists manipulated their results. To illustrate the potential uses of relatively large samples of citizen science data, we then used factor analysis to examine individual differences across the cognitive tasks. The data were best explained by multiple factors in support of the hypothesis that nonhumans, including dogs, can evolve multiple cognitive domains that vary independently. This analysis suggests that in the future, citizen scientists will generate useful datasets that test hypotheses and answer questions as a complement to conventional laboratory techniques used to study dog psychology.     

Eco-physiological responses to salinity changes across the freshwater-marine continuum on two euryhaline bivalves: Corbicula fluminea and Scrobicularia plana

The influence of global climate change will potentially alter the salinity of aquatic ecosystems. This represents a tremendous challenge for societies worldwide. Different sources of salinization (natural or anthropogenic) amplify the introduction of salt in rivers and streams, causing an increase of salt flowing down to estuarine and coastal areas. In this study, Corbicula fluminea and Scrobicularia plana have been selected because of their large tolerance for salinity variation (euryhaline organisms). They will allow the study of effect on the whole spectrum of salinity from fresh to marine waters respectively. The aim was to study the impact of experimental salinity stress at physiological, biochemical and behavioral levels by exposing both species to a salinity close to their limit range of tolerance, 15 practical salinity unit (psu), and at their field salinity (1.5 psu and 30 psu for C. fluminea and S. plana respectively) in the presence or absence of food during 2 and 7 days of exposure. Negative impacts of hyper saline condition for C. fluminea (15 psu) and hypo saline condition for S. plana (15 psu) have been measured at biochemical, physiological and behavioral levels. At sub-individual and individual levels, structural and energetic parameters and behavioral impairments seemed to be suitable biomarkers to assess salinity stress on C. fluminea and S.plana. After exposure to the limit of salinity tolerance (15psu) for both organisms, fitness modifications could appear, and may participate in endangering populations.     

On the morphology, biology, and distribution of Lobogynioides andreinii (Acari, Mesostigmata, Diplogyniidae)

Mesostigmatic mites Lobogynioides andreinii (Berlese, 1910) are reported for the first time from Eastern Europe (Ukraine: Odessa and Zakarpattia Provinces, Crimea) and Caucasus (Russia: Krasnodar Territory). The generic confinedness of this species needs clarification. The family Diplogyniidae is mentioned for the fauna of Ukraine for the first time. Adult mites were found on adults of Hololepta plana (Sulzer, 1776) (Coleoptera, Histeridae) and on larvae of Cucujus sp. (Coleoptera, Cucujidae) and Pyrochroa sp. (Coleoptera, Pyrochroidae) under the bark of poplar (rarely, alder). The juvenile stages of L. andreinii obtained in the laboratory are described for the first time. In the laboratory, beetles H. plana and mature L. andreinii were fed on drosophilid larvae. Adult L. andreinii mites, phoresing on H. plana, demonstrate kleptoparasitic behavior, consuming part of prey of their beetle hosts. The juvenile stages of L. andreinii are free living predators; in the laboratory, they feed on nematodes. The development of L. andreinii from egg to adult takes 48–60 and more days at 18–22°C. The phoresy of L. andreinii is characterized as an obligatory ecoethological phoresy according to Camerik (2009); H. plana is the preferable host of L. andreinii.     

Identifying mismatches between conservation area networks and vulnerable populations using spatial randomization

Grassland birds are among the most globally threatened bird groups due to substantial degradation of native grassland habitats. However, the current network of grassland conservation areas may not be adequate for halting population declines and biodiversity loss. Here, we evaluate a network of grassland conservation areas within Wisconsin, U.S.A., that includes both large Focal Landscapes and smaller targeted conservation areas (e.g., Grassland Bird Conservation Areas, GBCAs) established within them. To date, this conservation network has lacked baseline information to assess whether the current placement of these conservation areas aligns with population hot spots of grassland‐dependent taxa. To do so, we fitted data from thousands of avian point‐count surveys collected by citizen scientists as part of Wisconsin''s Breeding Bird Atlas II with multinomial N‐mixture models to estimate habitat–abundance relationships, develop spatially explicit predictions of abundance, and establish ecological baselines within priority conservation areas for a suite of obligate grassland songbirds. Next, we developed spatial randomization tests to evaluate the placement of this conservation network relative to randomly placed conservation networks. Overall, less than 20% of species statewide populations were found within the current grassland conservation network. Spatial tests demonstrated a high representation of this bird assemblage within the entire conservation network, but with a bias toward birds associated with moderately tallgrasses relative to those associated with shortgrasses or tallgrasses. We also found that GBCAs had higher representation at Focal Landscape rather than statewide scales. Here, we demonstrated how combining citizen science data with hierarchical modeling is a powerful tool for estimating ecological baselines and conducting large‐scale evaluations of an existing conservation network for multiple grassland birds. Our flexible spatial randomization approach offers the potential to be applied to other protected area networks and serves as a complementary tool for conservation planning efforts globally.