Composition of cell walls from cotyledons of Pisum sativum,Vicia faba and Glycine max

Cell walls from cotyledons of smooth field pea, broad bean and soya bean contain ca 55% pectic polysaccharides associated with 9% cellulose. Arabinose is the major pectic sugar of pea and broad bean walls whereas soya bean pectic polymers are constituted of galactose and arabinose in the ratio (2:1). Galacturonic acid represents ca 20% of the walls. In addition, pea and broad bean cell walls contain, respectively, 12% and 6% of non-starchy and non-cellulosic glucans bearing 4,6-linked and 3-linked glycosyl units. EDTA-soluble acidic pectic substances are distinct rhamnogalacturonans bearing decreasing proportions of interrupting rhamnose from highly interrupted moieties to nearly homogenous homogalacturonans. Pea and broad bean rhamnogalacturonans are associated with arabinose-containing polymers of average DP ca 30–35 whereas soya bean ones have side chains of arabinose and galactose of DP ca 40.     

Applications of pectinases in the commercial sector: a review

Pectinases are one of the upcoming enzymes of fruit and textile industries. These enzymes break down complex polysaccharides of plant tissues into simpler molecules like galacturonic acids. The role of acidic pectinases in bringing down the cloudiness and bitterness of fruit juices is well established. Recently, there has been a good number of reports on the application of alkaline pectinases in the textile industry for the retting and degumming of fiber crops, production of good quality paper, fermentation of coffee and tea, oil extractions and treatment of pectic waste water. This review discusses various types of pectinases and their applications in the commercial sector.     

Enzymatic Deconstruction of Backbone Structures of the Ramified Regions in Pectins

The pectic enzymes are a diverse group of enzymes that collectively degrade pectin, a mixture of highly heterogeneous and branched polysaccharides rich in d-galacturonic acids forming a major component of the primary cell wall of plants. This review covers key enzymes that function to deconstruct the “ramified region” of pectin. The enzymes include glycoside hydrolases and polysaccharide lyases that degrade complex pectic domains consisting of rhamnogalacturonans, xylogalacturonans, and other heterogeneous polymers. The chemical nature of the pectic substrates for the enzymes is presented. The biochemical properties of the enzymes, the mechanisms of enzyme actions, and related structures and functions, are described. Applications of these enzymes in fruit juice processing and in the production of bioactive compounds, as well as their technological relevance to the deconstruction of cell wall structures for biomass conversion are discussed.     

Labeling and chemistry of grapefruit pectic substances

The labeling of a number of polysaccharides found in grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) was achieved by feeding labeled myo-inositol to ripening grapefruit through their cut fruit stem, and allowing 4 days for the metabolism of label. The pectic polysaccharides were isolated by successive extraction of the labeled grapefruit with 80% ethanol, chloroform-methanol (1:1) and finally with 0.2 M Na₂ EDTA to solubilize pectic polysaccharides. The incorporation of label from myo-inositol into galacturonosyl, arabinosyl, xylosyl and galactosyl residues of pectic polysaccharides via myo-inositol oxidation pathway was demonstrated. Ion exchange chromatography of these labeled pectic polysaccharides using DE-52 cellulose resulted in the elution of eight totally or partially resolved polysaccharides with increasing salt concentration. The results suggest that, like other plant tissues, the myo-inositol oxidation pathway is also operative in ripening grapefruit and this metabolic pathway could be successfully utilized to achieve labeling of a number of pectic polysaccharides.     

Cell-wall polymers of the lettuce embryonic axis

Cell-walls were isolated from the embryonic axes of lettuce fruits and subjected to sequential solvent extraction. Analysis of the pectic and hemicellulosic wall fractions by partial methylation analysis indicated that the major components are arabinogalactans, rhamnogalacturonans, and xyloglucans found typically in dicotyledonous plants.     

Pectin: cell biology and prospects for functional analysis

Pectin is a major component of primary cell walls of all land plants and encompasses a range of galacturonic acid-rich polysaccharides. Three major pectic polysaccharides (homogalacturonan, rhamnogalacturonan-I and rhamnogalacturonan-II) are thought to occur in all primary cell walls. This review surveys what is known about the structure and function of these pectin domains. The high degree of structural complexity and heterogeneity of the pectic matrix is produced both during biosynthesis in the endomembrane system and as a result of the action of an array of wall-based pectin-modifying enzymes. Recent developments in analytical techniques and in the generation of anti-pectin probes have begun to place the structural complexity of pectin in cell biological and developmental contexts. The in muro de-methyl-esterification of homogalacturonan by pectin methyl esterases is emerging as a key process for the local modulation of matrix properties. Rhamnogalacturonan-I comprises a highly diverse population of spatially and developmentally regulated polymers, whereas rhamnogalacturonan-II appears to be a highly conserved and stable pectic domain. Current knowledge of biosynthetic enzymes, plant and microbial pectinases and the interactions of pectin with other cell wall components and the impact of molecular genetic approaches are reviewed in terms of the functional analysis of pectic polysaccharides in plant growth and development.     

果胶酶分离纯化及分析方法的研究进展

果胶酶能降解果胶质,在果汁制造、果酒酿造等方面有着广泛应用。果胶酶分子生物学的迅速发展极大地促进了分离纯化与分析方法的研究。由于不同菌种产生的果胶酶成分复杂程度不同,分离纯化手段和分析方法也不相同。本文对果胶酶分离纯化手段及其分析方法进行了综述。     

Composition of the walls of pollen grains of the seagrass Amphibolis antarctica

The composition of walls isolated from pollen grains of the seagrass Amphibolis antarctica was determined. Glucose, galactose, and rhamnose were the major neutral monosaccharides in the wall polysaccharides, and fucose, arabinose, xylose, and mannose were present in minor proportions. No apiose, a monosaccharide present in the wall polysaccharides of the vegetative parts of the seagrass Heterozostera tasmanica, was found. Large amounts of uronic acid (mainly as galacturonic acid) were found in the walls. The monosaccharides were probably present in cellulose and pectic polysaccharides, the latter comprising neutral pectic galactans, and rhamnogalacturonans containing high proportions of rhamnose. The walls contained a small amount of protein; glycine and lysine were the amino acids present in the highest proportions. Histochemical examination of isolated walls confirmed the presence of polyanionic components (pectic polysaccharides), -glucans (cellulose), and protein. The composition of the walls is discussed in relation to analyses of the walls of pollen grains and vegetative organs of other plants.     

A study of pectic polysaccharides in musts from various mature grapes grown in the Pech Rouge experimental vineyards

Soluble pectic polysaccharides were isolated from musts of seven mature grape cultivars by a 4-step procedure: pressing of the berries, denaturation of soluble proteins from must by emulsification with chloroform, elimination of diffusable molecules by extensive dialysis and finally discoloration onto Polyamide CC6. The polysaccharides were mainly constituted of arabinose, galactose and galacturonic acid, and their concentration in musts varied from 133 to 593 mg/l. The arabinose/galactose molar ratio was stable (0.91-1.04) for all cultivars, but one, Cinsaut (0.68). Methylation analyses showed that the polysaccharides from musts are a complex mixture of type II arabinogalactans, arabinans and rhamnogalacturonans. Similarities were observed in the relative distributions of galactose and arabinose structural features except for the Cinsaut and Grenache cultivars in which higher proportions of 3- and 3,6-linked galactose were found.     

In-situ analysis of pectic polysaccharides in seed mucilage and at the root surface of Arabidopsis thaliana

Pectic polysaccharides are a complex set of macromolecules of the primary cell wall matrix with distinct structural domains. The biosynthesis, organisation and function of these domains within cell wall matrices are poorly understood. An immersion immunofluorescence labelling technique was developed for the in-situ analysis of pectic polysaccharides at the surface of seeds and seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh., and used to investigate the occurrence of pectic homogalacturonan (HG) and rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) epitopes. Seed mucilage appeared to consist of two regions: a highly methyl-esterified HG was a major component throughout the mucilage, while an inner region with relatively low porosity was stabilized by calcium-based HG cross-linking. The small size and transparency of Arabidopsis roots allowed the occurrence of pectic HG and RG-I epitopes at root surfaces to be directly determined on whole-mount preparations. Pectic epitopes were not distributed evenly over root surfaces and were notably absent from lateral root apices and from the surface of root hairs. The use of defined antibody probes in the immersion immunolabelling protocol will be useful for the analysis of the influence of growth conditions and genetic factors on pectic polysaccharides in Arabidopsis. Received: 13 July 2000 / Accepted: 15 September 2000     

Evaluation of effectiveness of the methods for isolation of cell wall polysaccharides during cell elongation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> seedlings

Phaseolus vulgaris seedlings were grown in light with or without chromium. Changes in cell wall components i.e. pectic polysaccharides and xyloglucan contents were looked into during cell elongation, by two different methods in order to find the most suitable method for isolation of cell wall polysaccharides. The first method was short and easy. It made use of organic solvents for preparation of cell wall components and ammonium oxalate and oxalic acid buffer and high temperature for extracting pectic polysaccharides; 0.7 M and 4.3 M KOH was used for extracting low and high molecular weight xyloglucans respectively. On the other hand, in the second method, cell wall components were fractionated by sequential treatments with different inorganic solvents, chelating agents, sodium lauryl sulphate, etc. KOH (1 M and 4 M) was used for extracting xyloglucans. The advantage of using the second method for extracting cell wall polysaccharides especially pectic polysaccharides is discussed.     

Structure of Plant Cell Walls : XIX. Isolation and Characterization of Wall Polysaccharides from Suspension-Cultured Douglas Fir Cells

The partial purification and characterization of cell wall polysaccharides isolated from suspension-cultured Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) cells are described. Extraction of isolated cell walls with 1.0 m LiCl solubilized pectic polysaccharides with glycosyl-linkage compositions similar to those of rhamnogalacturonans I and II, pectic polysaccharides isolated from walls of suspension-cultured sycamore cells. Treatment of LiCl-extracted Douglas fir walls with an endo-α-1,4-polygalacturonase released only small, additional amounts of pectic polysaccharide, which had a glycosyl-linkage composition similar to that of rhamnogalacturonan I. Xyloglucan oligosaccharides were released from the endo-α-1,4-polygalacturonase-treated walls by treatment with an endo-β-1,4-glucanase. These oligosaccharides included hepta- and nonasaccharides similar or identical to those released from sycamore cell walls by the same enzyme, and structurally related octa- and decasaccharides similar to those isolated from various angiosperms. Finally, additional xyloglucan and small amounts of xylan were extracted from the endo-β-1,4-glucanase-treated walls by 0.5 n NaOH. The xylan resembled that extracted by NaOH from dicot cell walls in that it contained 2,4- but not 3,4-linked xylosyl residues. In this study, a total of 15% of the cell wall was isolated as pectic material, 10% as xyloglucan, and less than 1% as xylan. The noncellulosic polysaccharides accounted for 26% of the cell walls, cellulose for 23%, protein for 34%, and ash for 5%, for a total of 88% of the cell wall. The cell walls of Douglas fir were more similar to dicot (sycamore) cell walls than to those of graminaceous monocots, because they had a predominance of xyloglucan over xylan as the principle hemicellulose and because they possessed relatively large amounts of rhamnogalacturonan-like pectic polysaccharides.     

Application of CP-MAS and liquid-like solid-state NMR experiments for the study of the ripening-associated cell wall changes in tomato

¹³C and ¹H NMR spectra of an ethanol insoluble material (EIM) prepared from the pericarp of mature-green (MG) and red-ripe (RR) tomato fruits were acquired in ‘liquid-like’ and cross-polarisation with dipolar decoupling and magic angle spinning (CPMAS) conditions using the same triple resonance probe. Such a strategy allowed acquisitions of various NMR experiments aimed at detecting compositional differences as well as distinguishing differences in molecular mobility for various constituent polysaccharides related with the two ripening stages. Increase of the proton dipolar decoupling power levels from 3 to 50–55 kHz during single pulse ¹³C acquisition, led to more intense signals for pectic and hemicellulosic polysaccharides. This behaviour was interpreted as reflecting motional restrictions of these polysaccharides inside the porous cell wall network. Measurements of the proton rotating frame relaxation times T_1ρ in the ‘liquid-like’ conditions and of the proton transverse relaxation times T₂ from CPMAS spectra, revealed changes in mobilities for some pectic polysaccharides in relation with ripening, particularly for the H1 and H5 protons of -1,5 arabinan (Ara) side chains of rhamnogalacturonans. These data are discussed in relation with known pectic modifications occurring during ripening and associated with the tomato fruit softening.     

The immobility of pectic substances in injured tomato leaves and its bearing on the identity of the wound hormone

It has been suggested that pectic polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides cleaved from them) are liberated from the cell wall upon wounding of leaf tissue, and that they act as long-distance hormones evoking a defence response in neighbouring uninjured leaves (P.D. bishop et al. 1981, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 3536–3540, and cited literature). We have tested this hypothesis by infiltration of radioactive pectic fragments (rhamnogalacturonans and homogalacturonans of degrec of polymerisation down to 6) into wounds on tomato leaves. No radioactivity was exported from the treated leaf. [¹⁴C]Sucrose, applied in the same way, was effectively translocated, probably via the phloem. We suggest that pectic substances are not themselves long-distance wound hormones. The possibility remains that pectic substances, solubilised on wounding, act in the immediate vicinity of the wound to stimulate the dispatch of a second messenger, which would be the long-distance wound hormone.Abbreviations DP degree of polymerisation - PI proteinase inhibitor protein - PIIF PI inducing factor - QAE quaternary aminoethyl - TLC thin-layer chromatography     

Immunologically active metallic ion-containing polysaccharides of Achyrocline satureioides.

Two homogeneous, metallic ion-containing pectic polysaccharides with mean M(r)s of 7600 and 15,000 were isolated from dried aerial parts of Achyrocline satureioides by anion exchange column chromatography on DEAE-Sepharose CL-6B and gel filtration column chromatography on Fractogel TSK HW-50 (S). The structures, as determined by methylation analysis, carboxyl reduction, and partial acid hydrolysis, were shown to be rhamnogalacturonans. Both pectins show a pronounced anticomplementary effect in vitro. The larger carbohydrate AS 4 of higher M(r) exerts anti-inflammatory activity and a strong enhancement of phagocytosis in vivo.     

Enzymatic extraction and linkage analysis of pectic polysaccharides from onion

Pectin lyase was superior to polygalacturonase for the extraction of onion cell wall pectic polysaccharides. Exhaustive treatment of onion tissue with pectin lyase solubilized 89% of the total uronides of the tissue. The galacturonides released from the tissue were separated into three fractions (10.7, 5.3 and 84%, in order of MW) by gel filtration on Sephadex G-100. The low MW fraction was a mixture of oligogalacturonides. High and intermediate MW fractions were purified by DEAE-Sephadex column chromatography. The intermediate MW fraction was a rhamnogalacturonan II type component which contained 3- and 3,4-linked rhamnose. Methylation analysis showed that the pectic polysaccharides of onion resembled those of potato tuber.     

A simple procedure for the synthesis of alpha-32P-nucleoside triphosphates.

Chemical analysis of grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) pectic polysaccharides demonstrated that galacturonic acid constitutes 78% by weight of the total carbohydrates found. The remaining 22% was accounted for by a number of sugars which include galactose, glucose, arabinose, xylose, and mannose and, by weight, galactose accounted for almost 50% of the total neutral sugar components found in these pectic polysaccharides. Treatment of pectic polysaccharides with galactose oxidase followed by reduction of oxidized galactose residues with tritiated potassium borohydride resulted in the labeling of pectic polysaccharides. Analysis of the labeled polysaccharides demonstrated that of the total radioactivity incorporated more than 90% was recovered in the galactose residues. These results clearly demonstrate the successful utilization of the galactose oxidase/tritiated potassium borohydride method in labeling plant pectic polysaccharide.     

Molecular size and separability features of pea cell wall polysaccharides : implications for models of primary wall structure

Relative molecular size distributions of pectic and hemicellulosic polysaccharides of pea (Pisum sativum cv Alaska) third internode primary walls were determined by gel filtration chromatography. Pectic polyuronides have a peak molecular mass of about 1100 kilodaltons, relative to dextran standards. This peak may be partly an aggregate of smaller molecular units, because demonstrable aggregation occurred when samples were concentrated by evaporation. About 86% of the neutral sugars (mostly arabinose and galactose) in the pectin cofractionate with polyuronide in gel filtration chromatography and diethylaminoethyl-cellulose chromatography and appear to be attached covalently to polyuronide chains, probably as constituents of rhamnogalacturonans. However, at least 60% of the wall's arabinan/galactan is not linked covalently to the bulk of its rhamnogalacturonan, either glycosidically or by ester links, but occurs in the hemicellulose fraction, accompanied by negligible uronic acid, and has a peak molecular mass of about 1000 kilodaltons. Xyloglucan, the other principal hemicellulosic polymer, has a peak molecular mass of about 30 kilodaltons (with a secondary, usually minor, peak of approximately 300 kilodaltons) and is mostly not linked glycosidically either to pectic polyuronides or to arabinogalactan. The relatively narrow molecular mass distributions of these polymers suggest mechanisms of co- or postsynthetic control of hemicellulose chain length by the cell. Although the macromolecular features of the mentioned polymers individually agree generally with those shown in the widely disseminated sycamore cell primary wall model, the matrix polymers seem to be associated mostly noncovalently rather than in the covalently interlinked meshwork postulated by that model. Xyloglucan and arabinan/galactan may form tightly and more loosely bound layers, respectively, around the cellulose microfibrils, the outer layer interacting with pectic rhamnogalacturonans that occupy interstices between the hemicellulose-coated microfibrils.     

Immunoprofiling of pectic polysaccharides

An assay is described for the rapid identification of unbranched homogalacturonan and branched components occurring in samples of pectic polysaccharides using anti-pectin monoclonal antibodies. The assay involves the immunodetection of pectic polysaccharides after separation into two components during the application in small volumes to nitrocellulose. In this system, homoglacturonan-rich components migrate further on the nitrocellulose in contrast to pectic components with abundant side chains, resulting in a clear separation and discrete rings of distinct polysaccharides that can be identified using specific antibodies. This procedure is also directly applicable to preparations of plant material without the need for isolation of pectic polysaccharides.