The oldest known bryozoan: Prophyllodictya (Cryptostomata) from the lower Tremadocian (Lower Ordovician) of Liujiachang,south‐western Hubei,central China

A new cryptostome bryozoan, Prophyllodictya simplex sp. nov., is described from the Nantzinkuan Formation (Lower Ordovician, lower Tremadoc) of Liujiachang, central China. This antedates the previously oldest known bryozoan by several million years. Colony morphology and the phylogenetic position of Prophyllodictya within Cryptostomata are explored. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that Cryptostomata (except Prophyllodictya) can be divided into two major groups, and that Prophyllodictya occupies a basal position in the cryptostome tree, which accords with its simple morphology and antiquity. A close relationship is evident between bryozoans from the South China palaeoplate and those from Baltica.     

Miocene diversification of an open‐habitat predatorial passerine radiation,the shrikes (Aves: Passeriformes: Laniidae)

Diversification of avifaunas associated with savannah and steppes appears to correlate with open habitats becoming available, starting in the Miocene. Few comparative analyses exist for families for which all species are predominantly adapted to these habitats. One such group is Laniidae (Passeriformes), which are small‐ to medium‐sized predatory passerines known for their distinctive behaviour of impaling prey. We used multispecies coalescent‐based and concatenation methods to provide the first complete species‐level phylogeny for this group, as well as an estimate of the timing of diversification. Our analyses indicate that Laniidae as currently delimited is not monophyletic, as the genus Eurocephalus is not closely related to the remaining species. The two species currently assigned to the monotypic genera Urolestes and Corvinella are part of the same clade as the Lanius species, and we propose that they are included in the genus Lanius, making Laniidae monogeneric. The initial diversification of the clade is inferred to have occurred very rapidly, starting about 7.2–9.1 million years ago, timing depending on calibration method, but in either case coinciding with the expansion of C4 grasses. An African origin is inferred in the biogeographic analysis. In the redefined Laniidae, cooperative breeding is inferred to be restricted to a single clade, characterized by gregarious behaviour and rallying. Migratory behaviour evolved multiple times within the family.     

The development of lingual glands in the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos f. domestica): 3D‐reconstruction,LM, and SEM study

The major salivary glands of birds develop by branching or elongation of the epithelial cords. The development of the minor salivary glands in form of the lingual glands has never been described. Among birds, only Anatidae have three types of the lingual glands: rostral, caudo‐lateral, and caudo‐medial lingual glands. The study aims to characterize the manner and rate of the lingual glands development in the domestic duck and their topographical arrangement relative to the hyoid apparatus. The study reveals that all three types of the lingual glands develop by branching. We describe five stages of the lingual glands development in the domestic ducks: prebud, initial bud, pseudoglandular, canalicular, and terminal bud stage. The pattern of the lingual glands development in birds is similar to that described for mammals, with the exception, that the terminal buds are formed at the same time as the lumen of the glands. Generally, the rostral lingual gland starts to branch earlier than the caudal lingual glands. The 3D‐reconstruction shows the location and direction of lingual gland development relative to the entoglossal cartilage and basibranchial bone. Light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy allow to characterize the histogenesis of the embryonic epithelium into glandular epithelium. At a time of hatching only secretory units of caudal lingual glands resemble the secretory units of the adult domestic duck. The rostral and caudo‐lateral lingual glands are arranged on the sides of the entoglossal cartilage and basibranchial bone and caudo‐madial lingual glands are located over the basibranchial bone. We suggest that such an arrangement of the lingual glands in the domestic duck is important during food intake and responsible for reduction of friction and formation of food bites.     

The NIa‐Pro protein of Turnip mosaic virus improves growth and reproduction of the aphid vector,Myzus persicae (green peach aphid)

Many plant viruses depend on aphids and other phloem‐feeding insects for transmission within and among host plants. Thus, viruses may promote their own transmission by manipulating plant physiology to attract aphids and increase aphid reproduction. Consistent with this hypothesis, Myzus persicae (green peach aphids) prefer to settle on Nicotiana benthamiana infected with Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) and fecundity on virus‐infected N. benthamiana and Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) is higher than on uninfected controls. TuMV infection suppresses callose deposition, an important plant defense, and increases the amount of free amino acids, the major source of nitrogen for aphids. To investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms of this phenomenon, 10 TuMV genes were over‐expressed in plants to determine their effects on aphid reproduction. Production of a single TuMV protein, nuclear inclusion a‐protease domain (NIa‐Pro), increased M. persicae reproduction on both N. benthamiana and Arabidopsis. Similar to the effects that are observed during TuMV infection, NIa‐Pro expression alone increased aphid arrestment, suppressed callose deposition and increased the abundance of free amino acids. Together, these results suggest a function for the TuMV NIa‐Pro protein in manipulating the physiology of host plants. By attracting aphid vectors and promoting their reproduction, TuMV may influence plant–aphid interactions to promote its own transmission.     

Evolutionary systematics and biogeography of the arid habitat‐adapted rodent genus Gerbillus (Rodentia,Muridae): a mostly Plio‐Pleistocene African history

The systematics of the arid‐adapted Old World Gerbillus rodent genus has always been challenging, with many different taxonomic arrangements proposed. Beyond such taxonomic aspects, the timing and geographical pattern of the evolutionary history of this group remains largely unknown. Based on mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and nuclear (interphotoreceptor retinoid‐binding protein) sequences obtained from the specimens of 21 species, we conducted a phylogenetic analysis of the group, estimated the ages and putative ancestral ranges of its major lineages. Four major clades were clearly retrieved within Gerbillus, for which we propose a subgenus rank. We showed that the emergence of the genus dates back to the end of the Miocene, which corresponds to a period of aridification and C4 vegetation expansion in open habitats, while the four sublineages originated at the end of the Pliocene. Most subsequent diversification events occurred during the Pleistocene, a period characterized by recurrent climatic/environmental shifts with increasing aridification during the last two millions of years. Finally, we suggested that most of the Gerbillus evolutionary history took place in Africa. Only in a few instances did dispersal events from Africa to Asia give birth to extant Asian lineages, a pattern that contrasts with what has been found in many animal groups.     

Meta‐replication,sampling bias,and multi‐scale model selection: A case study on snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in western China

Replicated multiple scale species distribution models (SDMs) have become increasingly important to identify the correct variables determining species distribution and their influences on ecological responses. This study explores multi‐scale habitat relationships of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in two study areas on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau of western China. Our primary objectives were to evaluate the degree to which snow leopard habitat relationships, expressed by predictors, scales of response, and magnitude of effects, were consistent across study areas or locally landcape‐specific. We coupled univariate scale optimization and the maximum entropy algorithm to produce multivariate SDMs, inferring the relative suitability for the species by ensembling top performing models. We optimized the SDMs based on average omission rate across the top models and ensembles’ overlap with a simulated reference model. Comparison of SDMs in the two study areas highlighted landscape‐specific responses to limiting factors. These were dependent on the effects of the hydrological network, anthropogenic features, topographic complexity, and the heterogeneity of the landcover patch mosaic. Overall, even accounting for specific local differences, we found general landscape attributes associated with snow leopard ecological requirements, consisting of a positive association with uplands and ridges, aggregated low‐contrast landscapes, and large extents of grassy and herbaceous vegetation. As a means to evaluate the performance of two bias correction methods, we explored their effects on three datasets showing a range of bias intensities. The performance of corrections depends on the bias intensity; however, density kernels offered a reliable correction strategy under all circumstances. This study reveals the multi‐scale response of snow leopards to environmental attributes and confirms the role of meta‐replicated study designs for the identification of spatially varying limiting factors. Furthermore, this study makes important contributions to the ongoing discussion about the best approaches for sampling bias correction.     

Geographic variation in seed traits within and among forty‐two species of Rhododendron (Ericaceae) on the Tibetan plateau: relationships with altitude,habitat, plant height,and phylogeny

Seed mass and morphology are plant life history traits that influence seed dispersal ability, seeding establishment success, and population distribution pattern. Southeastern Tibet is a diversity center for Rhododendron species, which are distributed from a few hundred meters to 5500 m above sea level. We examined intra‐ and interspecific variation in seed mass and morphology in relation to altitude, habitat, plant height, and phylogeny. Seed mass decreased significantly with the increasing altitude and increased significantly with increasing plant height among populations of the same species. Seed mass differed significantly among species and subsections, but not among sections and subgenera. Seed length, width, surface area, and wing length were significantly negative correlated with altitude and significantly positive correlated with plant height. Further, these traits differed significantly among habitats and varied among species and subsection, but not among sections and subgenera. Species at low elevation had larger seeds with larger wings, and seeds became smaller and the wings of seeds tended to be smaller with the increasing altitude. Morphology of the seed varied from flat round to long cylindrical with increasing altitude. We suggest that seed mass and morphology have evolved as a result of both long‐term adaptation and constraints of the taxonomic group over their long evolutionary history.     

The rice terpene synthase gene OsTPS19 functions as an (S)‐limonene synthase in planta,and its overexpression leads to enhanced resistance to the blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae

Rice blast disease, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe oryzae, is the most devastating disease of rice. In our ongoing characterization of the defence mechanisms of rice plants against M. oryzae, a terpene synthase gene OsTPS19 was identified as a candidate defence gene. Here, we report the functional characterization of OsTPS19, which is up‐regulated by M. oryzae infection. Overexpression of OsTPS19 in rice plants enhanced resistance against M. oryzae, while OsTPS19 RNAi lines were more susceptible to the pathogen. Metabolic analysis revealed that the production of a monoterpene (S)‐limonene was increased and decreased in OsTPS19 overexpression and RNAi lines, respectively, suggesting that OsTPS19 functions as a limonene synthase in planta. This notion was further supported by in vitro enzyme assays with recombinant OsTPS19, in which OsTPS19 had both sesquiterpene activity and monoterpene synthase activity, with limonene as a major product. Furthermore, in a subcellular localization experiment, OsTPS19 was localized in plastids. OsTPS19 has a highly homologous paralog, OsTPS20, which likely resulted from a recent gene duplication event. We found that the variation in OsTPS19 and OsTPS20 enzyme activities was determined by a single amino acid in the active site cavity. The expression of OsTPS20 was not affected by M. oryzae infection. This indicates functional divergence of OsTPS19 and OsTPS20. Lastly, (S)‐limonene inhibited the germination of M. oryzae spores in vitro. OsTPS19 was determined to function as an (S)‐limonene synthase in rice and plays a role in defence against M. oryzae, at least partly, by inhibiting spore germination.