The Survivin Isoform Survivin-3B is Cytoprotective and can Function as a Chromosomal Passenger Complex Protein

Survivin is described as a bifunctional protein inhibiting apoptosis and regulating mitosis. However, the biological functions and contributions to cancer progression of survivin splicevariants are controversially discussed. We here show that the intracellular localization of 5 these splice variants depends on a Crm1-dependent nuclear export signal (NES) present in survivin, survivin-2B and survivin-3B, but absent in survivin-ΔEx3 and survivin-2α. Survivin isoforms lack an active nuclear import signal and are able to enter the nucleus by passive diffusion. Only survivin-3B but none of the other splice variants is cytoprotective and able to efficiently interact with chromosomal passenger complex (CPC) proteins. The NES together 10 with efficient CPC formation is required for the cytoprotective activity of survivin isoforms, aswell as for their correct localization and function during cell division. In the tumours from breast, colorectal, head and neck cancer, lymphoma and leukemia patients, survivin and survivin-2B were found overexpressed. However, survivin was the predominant form detected, and the other survivin isoforms were only expressed at low levels in tumours. Our data 15 provide a molecular rationale for the localization and activity of survivin variants, and conclude that survivin isoforms are unlikely to modulate survivin in trans in cancer patients.     

Separating the anti-apoptotic and mitotic roles of survivin

Survivin is a bifunctional protein that acts as a suppressor of apoptosis and has an essential role in mitosis. To date whether these two functions can be divorced has not been addressed. Here we show that the linker region between the BIR (baculovirus inhibitor of apoptosis repeat) domain of survivin and COOH-terminal alpha helix may be the key to separating its roles. When overexpressed survivin is present in interphase cells and shuttles between the cytoplasm and nucleus. Here we identify a rev-like nuclear exportation signal (NES) in the central domain of survivin and demonstrate that point mutations within this region cause accumulation of survivin in the nucleus. Interestingly cells expressing NES mutants exhibit reduced survival after X-irradiation. Moreover, cells expressing survivin(L98A)-green fluorescent protein (GFP) showed increased poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-cleavage and caspase-3 activity after tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) treatment compared with cells expressing full-length survivin-green fluorescent protein. These data suggest a direct link between the interphase localization of survivin and cellular responsiveness to apoptotic stimuli. Using a cell proliferation assay, we also found that ectopic expression of NES mutants can complement for depletion of endogenous survivin, indicating that they can execute the mitotic duties of survivin. Thus we demonstrate for the first time that 1) survivin has a functional NES; 2) nuclear accumulation of overexpressed survivin correlates with increased sensitivity of cells to ionising radiation; and 3) the anti-apoptotic and mitotic roles of survivin can be separated through mutation of its NES. Separating these two functions of survivin could open up new possibilities for therapeutic strategies aimed at eliminating cancer cells yet preserving normal cell viability.     

MDM2 splice variants predominantly localize to the nucleoplasm mediated by a COOH-terminal nuclear localization signal

Of the >40 alternative and aberrant splice variants of MDM2 that have been described to date, the majority has lost both the well-characterized nuclear localization signal (NLS1) and the nuclear export signal (NES) sequence. Because cellular localization of proteins provides insight regarding their potential function, we determined the localization of three different MDM2 splice variants. The splice variants chosen were the common variants MDM2-A and MDM2-B. In addition, MDM2-FB26 was chosen because it is one of the few variants described that contains the complete p53-binding site. All three splice variants predominantly localized to the nucleus. Nuclear localization of MDM2-A and MDM2-B was controlled by a previously uncharacterized nuclear localization signal (NLS2), whereas nucleoplasmic localization of MDM2-FB26 was mediated by NLS1. p53 and full-length MDM2 colocalized with the splice variants in the nucleus. MDM2-A and MDM2-B both contain a COOH-terminal RING finger domain, and interaction with full-length MDM2 through this domain was confirmed. MDM2-FB26 was the only splice variant evaluated that contained a p53-binding domain; however, interaction between MDM2-FB26 and p53 could not be shown. p14(ARF) did not colocalize with the splice variants and was predominantly expressed within the nucleoli. In summary, nuclear localization signals responsible for the nucleoplasmic distribution of MDM2 splice variants have been characterized. Colocalization and interaction of MDM2-A and MDM2-B with full-length MDM2 in the nucleus have important physiologic consequences, for example, deregulation of p53 activity.     

Differential subcellular localization of functionally divergent survivin splice variants

Survivin is an inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) that is markedly overexpressed in most cancers. We identified two novel functionally divergent splice variants, i.e. non-antiapoptotic survivin-2B and antiapoptotic survivin-deltaEx3. Because survivin-2B might be a naturally occurring antagonist of antiapoptotic survivin variants, we analyzed the subcellular distribution of these proteins. PSORT II analysis predicted a preferential cytoplasmic localization of survivin and survivin-2B, but a preferential nuclear localization of survivin-deltaEx3. GFP-tagged survivin variants confirmed the predicted subcellular localization and additionally revealed a cell cycle-dependent nuclear accumulation of survivin-deltaEx3. Moreover, a bipartite nuclear localization signal found exclusively in survivin-deltaEx3 may support cytoplasmic clearance of survivin-deltaEx3. In contrast to the known association between survivin and microtubules or centromeres during mitosis, no corresponding co-localization became evident for survivin-deltaEx3 or survivin-2B. In conclusion, our study provided data on a differential subcellular localization of functionally divergent survivin variants, suggesting that survivin isoforms may perform different functions in distinct subcellular compartments and distinct phases of the cell cycle.     

Homodimerization antagonizes nuclear export of survivin

Survivin plays separate roles during different phases of the cell cycle. In mitosis, Survivin is a key regulator of cell division, while in interphase, Survivin is able to protect cells from apoptosis. Survivin shuttles between nucleus and cytoplasm under the influence of one or more nuclear export signals (NESs). Paradoxically, our data show that Survivin poorly binds CRM1 in vitro because hydrophobic residues of the NES are occupied in homodimer contacts. We show that NES-preserving dimerization mutants behave as monomers in solution, show dramatically increased CRM1 binding and are more efficiently exported in vivo than wild-type Survivin. These data indicate that Survivin contains a monomer-specific NES and that dimerization modulates cytoplasmic access of the protein. Our findings have implications for both the mitotic and interphase roles of survivin.     

Survivin study: An update of “What is the next wave?”

Studies on survivin over the past 2-3 years have shown that survivin possesses multiple subcellular localizations and is a multifunctional molecule involved in many aspects of cellular processes and/or behaviors. The subcellular localization and function of the survivin splice variants, however, have not yet been well elucidated. We have, therefore, provided additional observations on several survivin splice variants for further exploration. This review article will update the role of survivin, and its splice variants in the mitosis/cell cycle, apoptosis, tumorigenesis, chemoprevention, drug/radiation resistance, and cancer therapeutics.     

Functional Interaction of the Ras Effector RASSF5 with the Tyrosine Kinase Lck: Critical Role in Nucleocytoplasmic Transport and Cell Cycle Regulation

RASSF5 is a member of the Ras association domain family, which is known to be involved in cell growth regulation. Expression of RASSF5 is extinguished selectively by epigenetic mechanism(s) in different cancers and cell lines, and reexpression usually suppresses cell proliferation and tumorigenicity. To date, the mechanism regulating RASSF5 nuclear transport and its role in cell growth regulation remains unclear. Using heterokaryon assay, we have demonstrated that RASSF5 shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, and its export from the nucleus is sensitive to leptomycin B, suggesting that RASSF5 is exported from the nucleus by a CRM-1-dependent export pathway. We further demonstrate that RASSF5 contains a hydrophobic-rich nuclear export signal (NES) towards the C-terminus and two nuclear localization signals—one each at the N-terminus and the C-terminus. Combination of mutational and immunofluorescence analyses suggests that the functional NES residing between amino acids 260 and 300 in the C-terminus is necessary for the efficient export of RASSF5 from the nucleus. In addition, substitution of conserved hydrophobic residues within the minimal NES impaired RASSF5 export from the nucleus. Furthermore, exchange of proline residues within the putative Src homology 3 binding motifs altered the export of RASSF5 from the nucleus despite the presence of functional NES, suggesting that multiple domains independently modulate the nucleocytoplasmic transport of RASSF5. Interestingly, the present investigation provided evidence that RASSF5 interacts with the tyrosine kinase Lck through its C-terminal Src homology 2 binding motif and showed that Lck-mediated phosphorylation is critical for the efficient translocation of RASSF5 into the nuclear compartment. Interestingly, our data demonstrate that wild type and nuclear export defective (ΔNES) mutant of RASSF5 but not the import defective mutant of accumulate the cells at G1/S phase and induce apoptosis. Furthermore, the Lck-interaction-defective mutant of RASSF5 induces apoptosis without altering cell cycle progression, suggesting that RASSF5 induces apoptosis independent of cell cycle arrest. Together, our data demonstrate that interaction with Lck is critical for RASSF5 phosphorylation, which in turn regulates the cell growth control activity of RASSF5. Finally, we have shown that RASSF5 encodes four splice variants and is translocated to the nucleus by the classical nuclear import pathway. One of the splice variants, RASSF5C, was found to be localized in the cytoplasm and translocated into the nucleus upon leptomycin B treatment despite the absence of N-terminal nuclear localization signal, suggesting that distribution of RASSF5 variants in different cellular compartments may be critical for Ras-dependent cell growth regulation. Collectively, the present investigation provided evidence that Lck-mediated phosphorylation regulates the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling and cell growth control activities of RASSF5.     

人外周血活化淋巴细胞survivin基因的转录激活和表达相关的信号转导通路研究

Survivin是与细胞增殖和细胞凋亡调控密切相关的重要功能蛋白质,也是肿瘤临床诊断的分子标志物及治疗研究的理想靶标.由于发现人外周血活化淋巴细胞存在Survivin蛋白的显著表达,故以植物血凝素(PHA)和IL-2共刺激培养的正常人外周血单个核细胞为实验材料,采用RT-PCR、蛋白质印迹以及细胞周期分析等实验方法,观察淋巴细胞活化与Survivin蛋白表达之间的相互关系,并利用3种激酶抑制剂探索了淋巴细胞活化所致Survivin蛋白表达相关的信号转导通路.实验结果表明：人外周血单个核细胞在刺激培养36 h前后出现survivin基因的明显转录激活和蛋白质的起始表达,表达产物的水平随培养时间的延长而增加,且具有明显的细胞周期和周期时相依赖性.JAK2的抑制剂AG490阻断细胞周期的运行,且强烈抑制survivin基因的转录激活和蛋白质表达,PI3K和MEK的抑制剂Wortmannin和PD98059也有一定程度的抑制作用.所得实验结论是：survivin基因的转录激活和蛋白质表达与淋巴细胞活化相关联,代表细胞处在增殖状态.JAK2介导的JAK-STAT信号通路是淋巴细胞活化,Survivin蛋白表达必需和最重要的信号转导通路,PI3K和MEK介导的信号通路也具有一定的影响作用.     

Negative modulation of signal transduction via interleukin splice variation

Interleukin 6 (IL-6) belongs to a large group of secreted proteins called cytokines functioning to mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis with direct effects on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation. Along with the IL-6 protein, two of its splice variants, IL-6delta2 and IL-6delta4, were reported to be transcribed or expressed in vivo in human, and the mRNAs of IL-6delta3 and IL-6delta5 had been observed in mouse. While the existence of different splice variants of IL-6 has been shown, very little is known on how the structural modifications of IL-6 resulting from the formation of the different splice variants may alter cytokine functions. We have analyzed the potential effects splicing would have on interactions with the cell surface receptor complex. We (1) constructed three-dimensional structures of the IL-6 splice variants, IL-6delta2, IL-6delta3, and IL-6delta4, with the assumption that an interleukin splice variant as a folded protein should retain a functional hydrophobic core; (2) reconstructed the ternary structural complexes consisting of the modeled IL-6 splice variants, the IL-6 receptor molecule (IL-6R) and the dimeric signal-transducing protein, gp130, and (3) analyzed all complexes and made comparisons with the X-ray structure of the wild-type IL-6 complex. We identified three separate sites on IL-6 where interactions are made with IL-6R and with each of the two copies of gp130. The structural consequences of losing an exon lead to a unique pattern of lost interaction with different components of the receptor complex. Thus, in IL-6 and its splice variants, the exons appear to have compartmentalized roles contributing to the combined function of the cytokine. The modeled interactions suggest that splice variants could act as antagonists, and that IL-6delta2, missing the signal peptide, would be a cytoplasmic protein and be released and interact with nearby cell-surface receptors when cells are damaged. We argue that in the case of IL-6, helix E may act as a "silent secondary structure," which only has an active role when it substitutes for a part of the hydrophobic core, for example, replacing helix A in IL-6delta2.     

Histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) deacetylates survivin for its nuclear export in breast cancer

Survivin is an oncogenic protein that is highly expressed in breast cancer and has a dual function that is dependent on its subcellular localization. In the cytosol, survivin blocks programmed cell death by inactivating caspase proteins; however, in the nucleus it facilitates cell division by regulating chromosomal movement and cytokinesis. In prior work, we showed that survivin is acetylated by CREB-binding protein (CBP), which restricts its localization to the nuclear compartment and thereby inhibits its anti-apoptotic function. Here, we identify histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) as responsible for abrogating CBP-mediated survivin acetylation in the estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer cell line, MCF-7. HDAC6 directly binds survivin, an interaction that is enhanced by CBP. In quiescent breast cancer cells in culture and in malignant tissue sections from ER+ breast tumors, HDAC6 localizes to a perinuclear region of the cell, undergoing transport to the nucleus following CBP activation where it then deacetylates survivin. Genetically modified mouse embryonic fibroblasts that lack mhdac6 localize survivin predominantly to the nuclear compartment, whereas wild-type mouse embryonic fibroblasts localize survivin to distinct cytoplasmic structures. Together, these data imply that HDAC6 deacetylates survivin to regulate its nuclear export, a feature that may provide a novel target for patients with ER+ breast cancer.     

一个新的C-末端内质网定位信号RFSK

蛋白质的亚细胞定位与其生物学功能有密切的关系。以一个新的小鼠N5一谷氨酰胺甲基转移酶基因mHemk的两个转录剪接本mHemkl和mHemk2（GenBank编号分别为AY456393和AY583759）为材料,进一步分析了该蛋白的亚细胞定位。根据生物信息学预测,在这两个蛋白质C．末端可能分别存在内质网（Ea）定位信号RFSK和KSLK,且这两个蛋白质都可能主要定位于细胞质。分别构建了这两个蛋白质以及相应的删除了C-末端RFSK和KSLK的缺失突变体与加强型绿色荧光蛋白的融合蛋白的表达质粒,并转染到MCF-7细胞中。结果证明mHemkl蛋白中的RFSK基序是一个新的内质网定位信号,但没有足够的证据支持KSLK基序是mHemk2蛋白的内质网定位信号。这两个转录剪接本蛋白不同的亚细胞定位是否表明它们在不同的亚细胞器内有不同的功能仍值得深入研究。     

Developmental control of apoptosis by the immunophilin aryl hydrocarbon receptor-interacting protein (AIP) involves mitochondrial import of the survivin protein

Survivin is a multifunctional protein with essential roles in cell division and inhibition of apoptosis, but the molecular underpinnings of its cytoprotective properties are poorly understood. Here we show that homozygous deletion of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor-interacting protein (AIP), a survivin-associated immunophilin, causes embryonic lethality in mice by embryonic day 13.5-14, increased apoptosis of Ter119(-)/CD71(-) early erythropoietic progenitors, and loss of survivin expression in its cytosolic and mitochondrial compartments in vivo. In import assays using recombinant proteins, AIP directly mediated the import of survivin to mitochondria, thus enabling its anti-apoptotic function, whereas a survivin 1-141 mutant that does not bind AIP was not imported to mitochondria and failed to inhibit apoptosis. AIP-directed mitochondrial import of survivin did not affect cell division, was independent of the organelle transmembrane potential, did not require the chaperone Heat Shock Protein 90 (Hsp90), and was inhibited by cytosolic factor(s) present in normal cells. shRNA knockdown of the mitochondrial import receptor Tom20 abolished mitochondrial import of survivin and sensitized tumor cells to apoptosis, whereas silencing of Tom70 had no effect. Therefore, an AIP-Tom20 recognition contributes to cell survival in development and cancer by mediating the mitochondrial import of survivin.     

Apoptin nucleocytoplasmic shuttling is required for cell type-specific localization, apoptosis, and recruitment of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome to PML bodies

The chicken anemia virus protein Apoptin selectively induces apoptosis in transformed cells while leaving normal cells intact. This selectivity is thought to be largely due to cell type-specific localization: Apoptin is cytoplasmic in primary cells and nuclear in transformed cells. The basis of Apoptin cell type-specific localization and activity remains to be determined. Here we show that Apoptin is a nucleocytoplasmic shuttling protein whose localization is mediated by an N-terminal nuclear export signal (NES) and a C-terminal nuclear localization signal (NLS). Both signals are required for cell type-specific localization, since Apoptin fragments containing either the NES or the NLS fail to differentially localize in transformed and primary cells. Significantly, cell type-specific localization can be conferred in trans by coexpression of the two separate fragments, which interact through an Apoptin multimerization domain. We have previously shown that Apoptin interacts with the APC1 subunit of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C), resulting in G(2)/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in transformed cells. We found that the nucleocytoplasmic shuttling activity is critical for efficient APC1 association and induction of apoptosis in transformed cells. Interestingly, both Apoptin multimerization and APC1 interaction are mediated by domains that overlap with the NES and NLS sequences, respectively. Apoptin expression in transformed cells induces the formation of PML nuclear bodies and recruits APC/C to these subnuclear structures. Our results reveal a mechanism for the selective killing of transformed cells by Apoptin.     

Synthesis and Characterization of Azido Aryl Analogs of IBNtxA for Radio-Photoaffinity Labeling Opioid Receptors in Cell Lines and in Mouse Brain

Mu opioid receptors (MOR-1) mediate the biological actions of clinically used opioids such as morphine, oxycodone, and fentanyl. The mu opioid receptor gene, OPRM1, undergoes extensive alternative splicing, generating multiple splice variants. One type of splice variants are truncated variants containing only six transmembrane domains (6TM) that mediate the analgesic action of novel opioid drugs such as 3′-iodobenzoylnaltrexamide (IBNtxA). Previously, we have shown that IBNtxA is a potent analgesic effective in a spectrum of pain models but lacks many side-effects associated with traditional opiates. In order to investigate the targets labeled by IBNtxA, we synthesized two arylazido analogs of IBNtxA that allow photolabeling of mouse mu opioid receptors (mMOR-1) in transfected cell lines and mMOR-1 protein complexes that may comprise the 6TM sites in mouse brain. We demonstrate that both allyl and alkyne arylazido derivatives of IBNtxA efficiently radio-photolabeled mMOR-1 in cell lines and MOR-1 protein complexes expressed either exogenously or endogenously, as well as found in mouse brain. In future, design and application of such radio-photolabeling ligands with a conjugated handle will provide useful tools for further isolating or purifying MOR-1 to investigate site specific ligand–protein contacts and its signaling complexes.