子午岭三种生境下辽东栎幼苗定居限制

辽东栎(Quercus wutaishanica)是子午岭地区的乡土乔木树种,也是该地区气候顶极群落的建群种,其幼苗的补充更新影响着森林群落的结构及物种组成。在3种典型生境(辽东栎林、人工油松林、灌草丛)中,设置3因素(种子、干扰、遮荫)两水平的野外播种实验(随机区组设计),记录辽东栎幼苗出苗量,并监测幼苗同生群在3种生境中3a间的生长状况,以确定种子及微生境在辽东栎幼苗补充过程中的限制作用。播种实验样方大小30cm×30cm,共计216个样方。结果显示,在辽东栎林及油松林内,增加种子和干扰强度(去除枯落物),能引起出苗量和幼苗补充量的显著增加,且2种处理方式间存在交互作用,表明在郁闭林冠下,辽东栎幼苗的补充受到了种子和微生境的双重限制,枯落物是导致微生境限制的主要因素之一。在灌草丛生境,各种处理方式均不能增加幼苗的补充量,表明辽东栎无法在开阔生境(强光照、干旱)中完成实生幼苗的补充更新。3种生境中的幼苗同生群生存分析表明,辽东栎幼苗在森林群落中存活率显著高于灌草丛群落。根据幼苗生长指标判断,在3种生境中,人工油松林是辽东栎幼苗定居的最佳场所。与实验预期相反,灌木对辽东栎幼苗的补充无显著影响。     

东灵山地区辽东栎幼苗的建立和空间分布

研究树木实生苗的建立对森林生态系统的保育和恢复具有重要意义,在北京东灵山地区调查了辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis)实生和萌生幼苗在几种典型的植被类型中的空间分布以及辽东栎一年生实生幼苗在1个林窗梯度上的建立。选择几种典型的植被类型,研究辽东栎实生幼苗和萌生幼苗在森林中的空间分布。结果显示,在不同植被类型中辽东栎实生和萌生幼苗的密度存在空间差异,实生苗密度随幼苗年龄增大逐渐降低,种群的更新主要依靠萌生苗完成。在1个落叶阔叶林中选择1个林窗,在不同梯度(即林窗中间、林窗和树冠连接处,以及树冠下)上,播种辽东栎坚果,第二年秋季调查实生幼苗的2个生长指标和出苗率。结果显示,林窗对一年生实生幼苗的生长高度有影响。幼苗高度在林窗中比在树冠下大;林窗对辽东栎幼苗最长叶片长度和幼苗的出苗率没有影响。说明辽东栎实生幼苗的良好生长需要阳光比较充足的生境条件。本项研究结果建议,对辽东栎种群的更新,应该适当择伐一些较大个体,使森林形成一些林窗或林中空地,以利于辽东栎实生幼苗的建立,这样才能使辽东栎种群通过实生苗进行更好的自然更新。     

北京东灵山区两种生境条件下辽东栎幼苗补充与建立的比较

 北京东灵山区的人工油松（Pinus tabulaeformis）林中常常混生有萌生的辽东栎（Quercus wutaishanica）种群。局部地带辽东栎与油松形成混交林,在山脊及山坡上部一些特殊生境辽东栎甚至取代油松林成为优势种。为了探讨北京东灵山区辽东栎林的天然更新机制及辽东栎幼苗在人工油松林中的天然更新,在油松人工林的林下和林缘两种生境条件下将辽东栎种子播种于2 cm深的土中,对辽东栎幼苗的补充和建立进行了对照试验。结果显示,在辽东栎结实丰年,两种生境条件下播种后辽东栎种子丢失差异并不显著,而辽东栎幼苗补充和建立方面的差异极显著。由于森林动物特别是啮齿类动物的活动对辽东栎幼苗建立的影响具有二重性：消耗种子与促进萌发,本试验特别关注辽东栎幼苗子叶丢失现象及其丢失后果。由于辽东栎种子萌根较早,在幼苗出土前其粗大的主根长达10～20 cm,并已初步形成根系,表明已有相当比例的营养物质从子叶转移到根部。因此当幼苗出土后如果仅仅只是子叶的丢失对辽东栎幼苗的成活和生长均无明显的影响。通过研究发现辽东栎幼苗期子叶丢失有3种形式：1）仅丢失子叶,幼苗其它部位未受伤害,多发生在林缘生境中,占发芽坚果的29.69%;2）整个幼苗连根被拖出地面,多发生在林下生境,占62.43%;3）在子叶与根颈的连接处主干被咬断,林缘为50.88%,显著高于林下的8.41%。但只有后两种形式才导致幼苗死亡。导致这些现象的原因是由于林缘土壤腐殖质含量低,比较干燥,土质较坚实,以及幼苗出土前坚果主根生长得较长等缘故,当幼苗遭受动物捕食时不会轻易地被拖出地面,拖走的往往仅仅是子叶。至生长季节结束,林缘样方辽东栎幼苗的成活率接近20%,茎干平均高度7.94 cm,芽数11.24·株-1,叶片平均干重为81.14 mg·株-1,且几乎全部由丢失子叶的幼苗所构成;而林下样方辽东栎幼苗的成活率不足2%,茎干平均高度4.74 cm,芽数7.52·株-1,叶片平均干重仅为42.27 mg·株-1,以未丢失子叶的幼苗为主。试验结果表明,林缘及类似林缘的环境条件更有利于辽东栎的实生更新。     

子午岭地区辽东栎和油松林建群种的更新生态位宽度分析

通过实地调查并采用Levins生态位宽度指数对子午岭地区主要树种辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis)和油松(Pinus tabulaeformis)的幼苗、幼树和成树在不同坡向的辽东栎林、油松 辽东栎混交林和人工油松林3种群落中的生态位宽度进行了分析研究。结果显示:(1)辽东栎和油松的更新生态位宽度在不同群落中各不相同,成树的生态位宽度与群落类型一致;(2)辽东栎幼苗和幼树在阳坡和阴坡人工油松林中的生态位宽度分别是0.951、0.95和0.98、0.94,且生态位宽度显著大于其它2个群落,表明辽东栎幼苗和幼树能很好地适应人工油松林的环境条件;(3)在阳坡,油松幼苗的生态位宽度在辽东栎林最大为0.79,且极显著大于其它2个群落,而阳坡油松幼树的生态位宽度在人工油松林中最大为1.00;在阴坡,油松幼苗的生态位宽度在人工油松林最大为0.63,而阴坡油松幼树的生态位宽度却在油松 辽东栎混交林最大为0.83,且极显著大于其它2个群落;表明油松幼苗适应阳坡的辽东栎林环境和阴坡的人工油松林环境,油松幼树适应阳坡的人工油松林环境和油松 辽东栎林环境。结果表明,人工种植油松林有利于该地区的植被恢复,人工油松林和油松 辽东栎混交林会在该地区存在较长时间,而阳坡的油松 辽东栎混交林存在时间会更长。     

东灵山油松林和辽东栎林下土壤资源和光资源的空间特征

油松林和辽东栎林是中国暖温带具有代表性的森林植被林型。为揭示油松林和辽东栎林下土壤资源和光资源的空间特征,在东灵山相应植被下各设置一条100 m样线,利用HH 2高精度土壤水分仪(美国生产)沿样线每隔1 m测定土壤水分含量,并分析相应点土壤有机质含量;利用H em iV iew林冠分析系统每隔10 m测定森林的叶面积指数、林冠覆盖度、林冠均匀性、光资源状况;采用半方差方法分析土壤水分和有机质的空间异质性。(1)油松林与辽东栎林的叶面积指数、林冠覆盖度、辐射因子和林下光资源没有显著差异,但油松林林冠均匀性显著小于辽东栎林。(2)辽东栎林的间接辐射因子与林下总辐射呈显著正相关(R2=0.466,p=0.030),而油松林的间接辐射因子与总辐射无显著相关(R2=0.203,p=0.191)。(3)光资源的数量及其组成在油松林和辽东栎林下的变化非常相似,但光资源的组成与林冠特征的关系在两种森林间存在差异。(4)油松林下土壤水分和土壤有机质含量低于辽东栎林,但异质性恰好相反;油松林下这两种因子不具有显著的空间自相关性,而辽东栎林下具有显著的空间自相关性。(5)自然条件下,10 m尺度的林下辐射强弱与土壤水分之间并不存在显著负相关。     

秦岭山地典型次生林木本植物幼苗更新特征

采用样方法调查了秦岭山地5种典型次生林--油松林、锐齿栎林、红桦林、云杉林和华山松林幼苗的更新特征.结果表明: 不同次生林木本植物幼苗物种分化明显,除锐齿栎林和华山松林外,其余次生林幼苗物种相似性系数均较低;油松林和锐齿栎林木本植物幼苗数量、物种丰富度指数、Simpson优势度指数及均匀度指数均较高,红桦林均最低;云杉林和华山松林幼苗数量及物种多样性指数基本一致.不同次生林幼苗和幼树所占比例存在明显差异,除红桦林幼树数量的比例较大外,其余林分幼苗的比例较大,为云杉林＞油松林＞锐齿栎林＞华山松林.不同林分幼苗萌生比例差异明显,为华山松林＞云杉林＞红桦林＞锐齿栎林＞油松林.锐齿栎林和油松林乔木幼苗比例最高,分别占木本幼苗总种数的68%和51.4%,群落处于演替中期,持续更新能力较强;云杉林、华山松林乔木幼苗比例分别为40%和15%,处于演替后期,更新能力较差;而红桦林中幼苗很难发育成幼树,持续更新能力欠缺.     

黄土丘陵区主要林分生物量及营养元素生物循环特征

以黄土丘陵区子午岭为研究区域 ,用标准木法和收获法对暖温带森林优势群落辽东栎林、油松林及刺槐人工林的生物量、营养元素生物循环量及循环特征进行了研究。结果表明 :黄土丘陵区子午岭油松林、辽东栎林和刺槐人工林 3林分总生物量为 :86 .2 4 7、12 9.0 0 5 t/ hm2和 14 4 .795 t/ hm2 ,乔木层生物量分别为 :85 .2 2 3、12 6 .989t/ hm2和 14 2 .4 88t/ hm2 ,随群落针阔树种转化替代 ,群落总生物量呈现明显的增加趋势。年均生长量为 3.2 75～ 5 .6 99t/ hm2。生物量和年生长量排序为刺槐人工林 >辽东栎林 >油松林。 3林分林下植被层生物量、凋落物贮量表现为刺槐林 >辽东栎林 >油松林 ,林下植被层生物量的差异主要是由林分郁闭度和林下凋落物的不同引起的 ;刺槐林和辽东栎林林下植被层发达的根系和较高的凋落物量有利于提高土壤肥力、保持水土。同化器官的各种元素含量高于其它器官 ,茎中营养元素的含量最低。乔木层营养元素积累量分别为 :0 .74 5、1.378t/ hm2和 1.80 5 t/ hm2 。不同林分不同营养元素的积累量差别较大。因采伐而引起的 3林分林地养分流失量分别达 6 5 .4 5 %、5 3.76 %和 2 5 .1%。 3林分林下植被层和凋落物层的营养元素积累量排序为 :刺槐林 >辽东栎林 >油松林。凋落物营养元素贮     

黄土高原马栏林区辽东栎更新特性研究

研究了黄土高原马栏林区主要植被类型中的辽东栎幼苗的数量特征,更新层幼苗、幼树的实生和萌生特性及其辽东栎在垂直结构上的数量分布。结果表明:(1)辽东栎幼苗在黄土高原马栏林区分布广泛且数量充足。不同的植被类型中辽东栎种群表现出不同的大小级结构,在油松—辽东栎混交林、油松林和辽东栎林中辽东栎种群的幼苗、幼树和成树均占一定的比例,而在油松—白桦混交林、白桦林、山杨林和山杨—白桦混交林中辽东栎种群则以幼苗和幼树为主。表明辽东栎种群在该地区植被的发展过程中将产生重要的作用。(2)辽东栎在这一地区是由实生和萌生的个体混合组成的。在各种植被类型中实生植株的密度都高于萌生植株,辽东栎种群的更新在该地区可能主要是通过实生植株来完成的,即辽东栎实生植株在更新过程中起重要的作用。但萌生植株作为辽东栎顺利通过瓶颈的一种手段,作为辽东栎种群繁衍和稳定的一种途径,在辽东栎种群的更新中也起着一定的作用。     

黄土高原马栏林区优势种幼苗与其种群径级结构的演替研究

对黄土高原马栏林区几种典型群落类型中优势种辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis)、油松(Pinus tabulaefor-mis)、白桦(Betula platyphylla)和山杨(Populus davidiana)的幼苗和种群径级结构进行了研究。结果表明:(1)辽东栎幼苗在马栏林区7种典型群落类型中均有分布,且数量充足,实生苗更新良好,辽东栎在不同的群落类型中表现出不同的种群径级结构。在油松 辽东栎混交林和辽东栎林中趋于稳定型;在油松林、油松 白桦混交林、白桦林、山杨林和白桦 山杨混交林中则为增长型;(2)油松幼苗在油松 白桦混交林、油松林和油松 辽东栎混交林中分布较多,但均少于辽东栎幼苗。在这些群落类型中油松种群的径级结构属于稳定型;(3)白桦和山杨幼苗数量较少,无正常更新能力,种群径级结构趋于衰退,以白桦和山杨为主的群落类型将逐渐被以油松和辽东栎为主的群落类型所取代;(4)马栏林区优势种幼苗分布的广度和丰度受到光照、水和灌草层等非生物和生物因素及其相互作用的影响。表明在黄土高原马栏林区以天然恢复为主的辽东栎种群,将在该地植被的自然恢复过程中产生重要作用;油松种群不仅过去而且将来也同样会在该地区的植被恢复中发挥重要作用。     

辽东栎幼苗根系形态特征对环境梯度的响应

以辽东栎(Quercus liaotungensis)在陕西不同分布区:秦岭北坡(太白)、黄土高原南部(黄龙)和黄土高原中部(延安)为研究地点并设置样地,对1—5年生辽东栎幼苗的根系形态指标进行测定,分析辽东栎幼苗根系形态特征及其与环境因子的关系。结果表明:由秦岭北坡到黄土高原中部,黄龙地区辽东栎幼苗根系在发育前期(1—2年)低于太白和延安,总体上黄龙地区幼苗根系总长度、表面积、总体积、根尖数、平均直径、组织密度和单株生物量高于太白和延安地区。在太白地区,辽东栎幼苗根系表面积、总体积和平均直径较小,根系分岔数较大,幼苗根系主要通过提高分岔数来拓展自己的营养空间以适应环境;在黄龙和延安地区,幼苗根系表面积、总体积和平均直径较大,根系分岔数较小,幼苗根系主要是通过根系的伸长生长适应胁迫环境。3个地区辽东栎幼苗根系总长度、表面积、总体积、根尖数和分岔数随年龄的增长呈线性函数变化格局,均可用线性函数方程y=ax+b(a0,P0.05)进行描述。冗余分析表明幼苗根系分岔数、总长度、比根长和根尖数与土壤速效磷、硝态氮、速效钾、降雨量、石砾含量和速效氮呈正相关;与较高的土壤pH值、年均温和夏季气温呈负相关。未来辽东栎林抚育经营中,含石砾的湿润土壤生境更有利于辽东栎幼苗根系生长。     

Seedling dynamics of shrubs in a fully closed temperate forest: greater than expected

Shrub seedling emergences were studied in a beech-birch forest in the Basque Country (Spain). During four years (1998–2001) all emerging shrubs were tagged and regularly monitored in 198 1 m² plots. Seedling emergence was intense during the entire study period and primarily occurred in early spring. Emerging seedlings mainly belonged to Hedera helix , Rubus gr. glandulosus and several heath species (including genera Erica , Calluna and Daboecia ). In contrast, some dominant species components of the shrub layer ( Vaccinium myrtillus and Lonicera periclymenum ) showed no emergences. While small seeded species (heath species and Rubus ) showed clear microsite preferences, avoiding litter for emergence, that was not the case of large seeded Hedera helix. Strict microsite requirements appear clearly associated with having seed bank, suggesting that this trait may allow these species to select favourable microenvironment prior to germination. Average life varied largely among the different taxa. It was very low for Rubus (7.4 months) and heath (4.9), and high for Hedera seedlings (23.1). Final survival was extremely low in the case of small-seeded species. Survival of Hedera seedlings was high, although their growth was very low, suggesting the existence of a conspicuous seedling bank. Our results clearly show that several shrubs species have dramatic seedling dynamics in full closed forest stands. Small seeded species preferentially emerge on bare surfaces in early spring from the soil seed banks. On the other hand, Hedera seedlings are able to emerge on litter and maintain a conspicuous seedling bank based on an efficient dispersal capability.     

Seed dispersal and seedling recruitment of trees at different successional stages in a temperate forest in northeastern China

Aims Spatial distribution of adult trees in a forest community is determined by patterns of both seed dispersal and seedling recruitment. The objectives of our study were to understand the processes of seed dispersal and seedling recruitment of dominant tree species in a temperate forest of northeastern China and to identify the factors constraining seed dispersal and seedling establishment at different stages of forest succession.Methods During three summer and autumn sessions between 2006 and 2008, altogether 113080 seeds from 22 different tree species were collected in three large field plots representing different forest types in the Changbai Mountain region of northeastern China. The spatial distribution of seed abundance was analyzed using a Syrjala test. Regeneration success of nine major tree species was assessed using variables defining 'limitations' in 'seeds' and 'seedling establishment'.Important findings We found that seed production fluctuated between years and varied greatly with forest types. Four tree species, Acer spp., Fraxinus mandshurica, Tilia amurensis and Betula spp., had the greatest seed production and the widest range of seed dispersal, whereas Quercus mongolica showed the most sustained seed production pattern. The spatial patterns of seed abundance differed significantly among forest types and years. The tree species investigated in this study differed in the degree of seed limitation, as well as in limitation of seedling establishment. There were both negative and positive correlations between seed density and seedling density, depending on site and parental tree density. Seeds of 16 tree species were found in the Populus davidiana–Betula platyphylla forest (PBF) plot, 11 in the conifer and broad-leaved mixed forest (CBF) plot but only 8 in the broad-leaved-Korean pine mixed forest (BKF) plot. The number of seed-contributing species was not only greater in the secondary forests (CBF and PBF plots) than in the primary forest (BKF plot) but was also more variable during the 3 years of assessment. Results from the correlations between seed density and seedling occurrence and that between parental tree density or seed weight and dispersal limitation confirm our intuitive expectations, i.e. heavy seeds had greater dispersal limitation but higher establishment success than light seeds.     

Establishment of tree seedlings in the understory of restoration plantations: natural regeneration and enrichment plantings

Little is known about the potential of restoration plantations to provide appropriate understory conditions to support the establishment of seeds arriving from neighboring native forests. In this article, we investigated how seedling establishment is affected in the understory of restoration sites of different ages and assessed some of the potential environmental factors controlling this ecological process. We first compared the density and richness of native tree seedlings among 10‐, 22‐, and 55‐year‐old restoration plantations within the Atlantic Forest region of southeastern Brazil. Then, we undertook a seed addition experiment in each study site, during the wet season, and compared seedling emergence, survival, and biomass on local versus old‐growth forest soil (transferred from a reference ecosystem), in order to test whether local substrate could hamper seedling establishment. As expected, the oldest restoration site had higher density and richness of spontaneously regenerating seedlings. However, seedling establishment was less successful both in the oldest restoration planting and using substrate transferred from a reference ecosystem, where emergence and survival were lower, but surviving seedlings grew better. We attribute these results to lower light availability for seedlings in the understory of the oldest site and speculate that higher incidence of pathogens on old‐growth forest soil may have increased seedling mortality. We conclude that the understory of young restoration plantations provides suitable microsite conditions at the early establishment phases for the spontaneous regeneration or enrichment planting of native trees.     

Rodent seed predation and seedling recruitment in mesic grassland

Seedling recruitment of two grasses (Arrhenatherum elatius and Festuca rubra) and two herbs (Centaurea nigra and Rumex acetosa) was measured in areas with and without rodents to which seeds of each species were sown at three seed densities (1000, 10,000 and 50,000 seeds m⁻²) in two seasons (spring and autumn 1995). Seed removal was measured for 10-day periods and the fate of seedlings was followed for 15 months after sowing. The proportion of seed removed ranged from 6 to 85% and increased with increasing seed density for each species. Rodents had no effect on seedling emergence or survival in the spring sowing. In the autumn sowing, rodents reduced seedling emergence of all four species sown at 1000 and 10,000 seeds m⁻² but had no impact at 50,000 seeds m⁻², presumably because of microsite limitation. We suggest the difference between spring and autumn arose because emergence was seed limited in autumn but microsite limited in spring; microsite availability was higher in autumn because a summer drought killed plants, reduced plant biomass and opened up the sward. Fifteen months after the autumn sowing, fewer A. elatius and C. nigra seedlings survived on plots exposed to rodents. This result reflected not only the reduced seedling emergence but also increased seedling mortality (seedling herbivory) in sites exposed to rodents. In contrast, F. rubra and R.acteosa showed density-dependent seedling survival which compensated for initial differences in seedling emergence, so that no effect of rodents remained after 15 months. The results suggest that rodent seed predation and seedling herbivory exert strong effects on seedling recruitment of A.elatius and C. nigra when recruitment conditions are favourable (conditions that lead to high microsite availability) and may contribute to both species being maintained at low densities in the grassland. The results also demonstrate that highly significant impacts of rodent seed predation at the seedling emergence stage can disappear by the time of plant maturation. Received: 2 March 1998 / Accepted: 28 September 1998     

Top‐down control of rare species abundances by native ungulates in a grassland restoration

Ecological restorations are predicted to increase in species diversity over time until they reach reference levels. However, chronosequence studies in grasslands often show that diversity peaks after the first few years and then declines over time as grasses become more dominant. We addressed whether bison grazing and seed additions could prevent this decline in diversity. Exclosures that prevented bison grazing were compared with grazed plots over 4 years, and seed additions were conducted inside and outside exclosures to test for seed and microsite limitations. A previous study conducted 4‐months post seeding found that local species richness was primarily seed limited, but that grazing could sometimes increase seedling emergence. Here, we tested whether increased seedling emergence led to longer‐term increases in the species diversity of the plant community. We found that the seed addition effect grew smaller and the grazing effect grew stronger over time, and that seed additions affected the abundance of added species only when plots were grazed. Grazed plots had higher species diversity and lower biomass and litter buildup compared to non‐grazed plots. Our results suggest that moderate grazing by bison or management that mimics grazing can maintain diversity in grass‐dominated situations. Our results also emphasize the need to follow seed additions over several years to assess correctly whether seed limitation exists.     

Seedling emergence patterns and dormancy/germination physiology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Primula modesta</Emphasis> in a subalpine region

On the basis of the germination/dormancy responses of seeds to temperature and light, and local seed rain, we attempted to interpret the seedling emergence patterns of Primula modesta Bisset et Moore (Primulaceae) in two different types of habitats in a subalpine zone of Mt. Asama: an oligotrophic flat moor and a grassland with relatively dense herbaceous vegetation cover. The seasonal pattern of seedling emergence was well explained by the dormancy/germination physiology revealed in laboratory germination tests. The seeds were demonstrated to have a strict light requirement even after experiencing moist chilling, which might facilitate the incorporation of the seeds into the soil seed bank. Despite sufficient seed production, the seedlings emerging were far less at the grassy site than the moor site, but the number of seedlings was significantly dependent on the seed rain within previous season and on the litter cover of the microsite in both sites. Therefore, the spatiotemporal patterns of seedling emergence in the habitats could be well explained by the spatiotemporal patterns of seed rain and safe-sites for germination.     

Seed size and seedling emergence in 16 temperate forest herbs and one dwarf-shrub

The impact of seed size (seed mass) on seedling emergence beneath a leaf litter layer and post-dispersal seed predation was investigated in two field experiments including 16 forest herbs and one dwarf-shrub in southeastern Sweden. In the first experiment, I studied the relationship between seed mass of eight forest herbs (0.3–16.7 mg) and seedling emergence after removal of litter and reduction of seed predation (rodents and insects). Removal of litter and reduction of seed predation did not affect seedling emergence. However, regardless of treatment, species with large seeds (> 3 mg) had a higher seedling emergence than those with small seeds (< 1 mg). In the second experiment, I investigated the relationship between seed mass of 12 species (0.007–18.4 mg) and seedling emergence after removal of litter, reduction of seed predation (insects) and seedling herbivory (molluscs). Total emergence over three years was significantly higher in species with large seeds (> 3 mg) than in those with small seeds (< 2 mg). Removal of litter increased total seedling emergence, while application of insecticide and molluscicide had no effect. Similar results were obtained from both a deciduous and a mixed coniferous forest, but seedling emergence was in general higher in the mixed coniferous forest. Seedling emergence in temperate forest herbs and dwarf-shrubs seems to be higher in species with large than in those with small seeds, and it is often enhanced by disturbance.     

Tree Regeneration in Church Forests of Ethiopia: Effects of Microsites and Management

Tree regeneration is severely hampered in the fragmented afromontane forests of northern Ethiopia. We explored how trees regenerate in remnant forests along the gradient from open field, forest edge to closed sites and canopy gaps inside the forest. We investigated the effects of seed sowing, litter removal, and weeding on the regeneration success along this gradient. Regeneration success was investigated for four indigenous tree species, and measured in terms of seedling establishment, growth, and survival. Species performed differently according to site conditions. Within the forest, local canopy openings facilitated seed germination ( Ekebergia ), seedling growth (all species except Olea ), or survival ( Ekebergia and Olea ), suggesting that all species benefited from local high light conditions in the forest. Outside the forest, germination (all species) and growth rates ( Juniperus and Olea ) were lower in the open field, most probably due to water stress in the dry season. Outer edge conditions favored growth for three of the four species. Natural seed germination was, however, zero at any site for Juniperus and Olea and low for Ekebergia and Prunus in the open field. Soil scarification influenced germination positively, while weeding did not have a positive effect. These results suggest that simple measures may improve seedling establishment, and that, for some species, forest edges are particularly useful for growth and survival after succesful establishment. Together with erecting fences, needed to protect seedlings against grazing, seed sowing, planting seedling, and soil scarification may contribute to maintain and restore church forests in the fragmented landscapes of northern Ethiopia.