Ontogeny of postcanine tooth form in the ferret,Mustela putorius (Carnivora: Mammalia), and the evolution of dental diversity within the mustelidae

This study describes dental development within the ferret, Mustela putorius, through study of the form of the carnassial teeth and the upper first molar at progressive growth stages. Primordial teeth were serially sectioned in sagittal and transverse planes and three-dimensional reconstructions of tooth primordia were generated using MacReco software. Regional growth of the crown and asynchronous maturation of the dental tissues were observed in each tooth. The upper carnassial blade develops early and the tooth increases in length rapidly. Lingual growth of the upper carnassial is less pronounced and the protocone and its surrounding region mature late. The lower carnassial blade develops early and the talonid is late to mature. Development of the upper first molar differs from carnassial development in the early emphasis upon transverse growth and reduced lengthwise expansion. The early development of the carnassial blades in the ferret is shared with other carnivores, and may reflect the functional significance of this feature. Later stages of tooth ontogeny differ among carnivoran taxa and the specialized morphology of ferret teeth results from an apparently truncated period of late tooth ontogeny. This suggests that carnivoran species may share a common path of early development that specifies the ontogeny of homologous tooth features and that in later stages developmental differences result in species-specific tooth forms. J. Morphol. 237:69–90, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Pleistocene Carnivora (Mammalia) from Tighennif (Ternifine), Algeria

The site of Tighennif (= Ternifine) in Northern Algeria, well-known for its Homo mauritanicus (= Homo rhodesiensis?) remains, and probably dating to the late Calabrian, yielded a large assemblage of terrestrial carnivores. Some are identical or probably identical with extant species: Crocuta crocuta and Hyaena hyaena (Hyaenidae), Felis silvestris (Felidae), Mellivora capensis and Poecilictis cf. libyca (Mustelidae), and Vulpes cf. rueppelli (Canidae). In addition, among felids there is an unidentified leopard-like form; a smaller, more common species assigned to Lynx sp. (a genus quite rare in Africa) but which is certainly different from modern forms, an Homotherium that seems to be the last occurrence of the machairodonts in Africa, and a Panthera aff. leo, which is unfortunately too poorly known to be named. Rare bears do not display all derived features of later North African U. bibersoni. Among canids, the Nyctereutes-like jackal Lupulella mohibi is an endemic North African form known until the late middle Pleistocene, and the hunting dog Lycaon magnus is also clearly distinct from the modern species. A single new species is described, Enhydrictis hoffstetteri, a large, otter-like member of the Mustelidae, of a genus that was previously unknown from Africa, and certainly testifies to North–South dispersal across the Mediterranean at some time during the early Pleistocene.     

Civettictis braini nov. sp. (Mammalia: Carnivora), a new viverrid from the hominin-bearing site of Kromdraai (Gauteng,South Africa)

A new Plio-Pleistocene viverrid species is described based on two newly discovered maxillae (KW 10141 and KW 10383) from the recent excavations at the hominin-bearing site of Kromdraai (Gauteng, South Africa). This major site allows us to address the conundrum of Paranthropus and Homo origins in South Africa and presents a highly diverse carnivore spectrum (at least 22 species) including herpestids and viverrids. Civettictis braini nov. sp. is a viverrid species comparable in size to the extant African civet Civettictis civetta (Schreber, 1776). However C. braini nov. sp. differs significantly from the extant species in its dental proportions. Its canine and three premolars (P1–P3) are relatively robust, while its carnassials (P4) and two molars (M1, M2) are extremely reduced. This new species supplements our knowledge on carnivore taxonomic diversity and paleoecology in Southern Africa about 2 millions of years ago.     

Phylogeny of the Procyonidae (Mammalia: Carnivora): molecules, morphology and the Great American Interchange

The Procyonidae (Mammalia: Carnivora) have played a central role in resolving the controversial systematics of the giant and red pandas, but phylogenetic relationships of species within the family itself have received much less attention. Cladistic analyses of morphological characters conducted during the last two decades have resulted in topologies that group ecologically and morphologically similar taxa together. Specifically, the highly arboreal and frugivorous kinkajou (Potos flavus) and olingos (Bassaricyon) define one clade, whereas the more terrestrial and omnivorous coatis (Nasua), raccoons (Procyon), and ringtails (Bassariscus) define another clade, with the similar-sized Nasua and Procyon joined as sister taxa in this latter group. These relationships, however, have not been tested with molecular sequence data. We examined procyonid phylogenetics based on combined data from nine nuclear and two mitochondrial gene segments totaling 6534bp. We were able to fully resolve relationships within the family with strongly supported and congruent results from maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, minimum evolution, and Bayesian analyses. We identified three distinct lineages within the family: a (Nasua, Bassaricyon) clade, a (Bassariscus, Procyon) clade, and a Potos lineage, the last of which is sister to the other two clades. These findings, which are in strong disagreement with prior fossil and morphology-based assessments of procyonid relationships, reemphasize the morphological and ecological flexibility of these taxa. In particular, morphological similarities between unrelated genera possibly reflect convergence associated with similar lifestyles and diets rather than ancestry. Furthermore, incongruence between the molecular supermatrix and a morphological character matrix comprised mostly of dental characters [Baskin, J.A., 2004. Bassariscus and Probassariscus (Mammalia, Carnivora, Procyonidae) from the early Barstovian (Middle Miocene). J. Vert. Paleo. 24, 709-720] may be due to non-independence among atomized dental characters that does not take into account the high developmental genetic correlation of these characters. Finally, molecular divergence dating analyses using a relaxed molecular clock approach suggest that intergeneric and intrageneric splits in the Procyonidae mostly occurred in the Miocene. The inferred divergence times for intrageneric splits for several genera whose ranges are bisected by the Panamanian Isthmus is significant because they suggest diversification well precedes the Great American Interchange, which has long been considered a primary underlying mechanism for procyonid evolution.     

Eimeria melogale n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) in the Javan ferret-badger (Melogale orientalis)

The Javan ferret-badger Melogale orientalis (Carnivora: Mustelidae: Helictidinae) is a small carnivore endemic to Indonesia. In the family Mustelidae, 10 Eimeria, 12 Cystoisopora, one Isospora, and one Hammondia species are known, but no eimeriid coccidia has been yet described in the subfamily Helictinidae (ferret badgers). Coproscopic examination of Javan ferret-badgers imported into the Czech Republic revealed the presence of coccidian oocysts. Sporulated oocysts differ from other Eimeria known in the family Mustelidae by their small size (12.4–16.1 × 10.4–13.4 μm) and ovoidal shape. Morphological data and phylogenetic analyses of 18S rRNA and COI genes indicated a new species of Eimeria found in faecal samples of Javan ferret badgers. The species is described as E. melogale n. sp.     

A Total Evidence Phylogeny of the Arctoidea (Carnivora: Mammalia): Relationships Among Basal Taxa

A total evidence phylogenetic analysis was performed for 14 extant and 18 fossil caniform genera using a data matrix of 5.6 kbp of concatenated sequence data from six independent loci and 80 morphological characters from the cranium and dentition. Maximum parsimony analysis recovered a single most parsimonious cladogram (MPC). The topology of the extant taxa in the MPC agreed with previous molecular phylogenies. Phylogenetic positions for fossil taxa indicate that several taxa previously described as early members of extant families (e.g., Bathygale and Plesictis) are likely stem taxa at the base of the Arctoidea. Taxa in the “Paleomustelidae” were found to be paraphyletic, but a monophyletic Oligobuninae was recovered within this set of taxa. This clade was closely related to the extant genera Gulo and Martes, therefore, nested within the extant radiation of the family Mustelidae. This analysis provides a resolution to several discrepancies between phylogenies considering either fossil taxa or extant taxa separately, and provides a framework for incorporating fossil and extant taxa into comprehensive combined evidence analyses.     

Craniodental characters and the relationships of Procyonidae (Mammalia: Carnivora)

Recent phylogenies of Procyonidae based on molecular data differ significantly from previous morphology‐based phylogenies in all generic sister taxon relationships. I have compiled the most comprehensive dataset of craniodental morphology that incorporates previous morphological characters, and with the aid of high‐resolution X‐ray computed tomography, new characters. This expanded craniodental analysis is based on 78 characters and yields new phylogenetic results regarding the ingroup relationships of Procyonidae. These results include Bassariscus astutus as the least derived member of Procyonidae and Ailurus fulgens nested well within the clade. Additionally, there are some similarities to previous morphological analyses of Procyonidae. Although the characters used to unite and diagnose Procyonidae vary depending on the phylogenetic analysis and have ambiguous taxonomic distribution amongst both Procyonidae and Musteloidea, there is significant morphological support for clades within Procyonidae. In addition to the strength of the morphological support within the clade, the disparate topographical regions of the skull from which the characters are derived may indicate that these synapomorphies are indeed the result of homology rather than adaptive convergence, as suggested by analyses based on molecular data. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 164 , 669–713.     

Musteloids and feloids (Mammalia, Carnivora) from the late Miocene locality of Pikermi (Attica, Greece)

Some relatively rare carnivore remains from Pikermi are studied. The present specimens include Simocyon primigenius(ROTH and WAGNER, 1854), Promeles palaeatticus(WEITHOFER, 1888), Martes woodwardiPILGRIM, 1931, Felis atticaWAGNER, 1857 and Machairodus giganteus(WAGNER, 1848), as well as some postcranial remains that resemble Enhydriodon? latipesPILGRIM, 1931 and are assigned to Mustelidae gen. et spec. indet. Some of these species were not known until now but from their holotypes as M. woodwardi and E.? latipes. Other species such as F. attica and M. giganteus are better known but from relatively scant material. Since the material of the earlier mentioned species comes from Pikermi, their type locality, it is of especial importance and improves our knowledge for the Pikermi carnivores and their relationships to other species. In some cases where the material comes from ossiferous blocks, the accompanying faunal context is discussed.     

Genets and 'genet-like' taxa (Carnivora, Viverrinae): phylogenetic analysis, systematics and biogeographic implications

The subfamily Viverrinae is a taxon of uncertain systematic status. This study consists of cladistic analyses based on morphological characters of specimens belonging to the genera Genetta , Osbornictis , Poiana and Prionodon . Two levels of analysis are carried out, one concerning generic relationships (intergeneric analysis) and one dealing with the interrelationships of species within the genus Genetta (intrageneric analysis). In the first analysis, different outgroups were used in order to test the ingroup topology.
With regard to the intergeneric analysis, Osbornictis , Poiana and Prionodon , together with Genetta johnstoni , constitute a monophyletic group (including Nandinia ), which is the sister-group of a clade formed by the other species of genets. Thus, the genus Genetta is regarded as paraphyletic. Prionodon appears to be a derived taxon. The Poiana – Prionodon clade is well supported, especially by ultrastructural hair characters. The cladogram topology in the intrageneric analysis indicates an ecological transition from the rain forest genets to the savanna genets. This supports a rain forest origin of the genus Genetta , a conclusion which may be generalized to the entire study group. © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 134 , 317–334.     

中国灵猫科的支序系统学分析

选取分布于中国境内的8属9种灵猫科动物的88个骨骼性状、31个外部形态性状和1个行为性状,运用替代外群法分别以赤狐(犬科狐属)和青鼬(鼬科貂属)共同或单独作为外群进行支序分析,得出10个支序图,其步长(TL)为：106～136,一致性指数(CI)为0．581—0．660,保留指数(RI)为0．610—0．714。经合意分析得到4个相似的支序图,其TL为41—136,CI为0．581—0．732,RI为0．610—0．818,结果支持：①斑灵狸、大灵猫、小灵猫构成一个单系群,与传统分类一致(均属灵猫亚科);②椰子狸、花面狸、熊狸构成一个单系群,与传统分类一致(均属长尾狸亚科);③红颊獴、食蟹獴与灵猫科其他种为姐妹群关系(Bootstrap检验支持率100％),建议獴类为一亚科;④长颌带狸拥有较多自近裔性状如三个门齿孔,是一个高度特化的种类,其系统地位有待进一步研究。     

Building large trees by combining phylogenetic information: a complete phylogeny of the extant Carnivora (Mammalia)

One way to build larger, more comprehensive phylogenies is to combine the vast amount of phylogenetic information already available. We review the two main strategies for accomplishing this (combining raw data versus combining trees), but employ a relatively new variant of the latter: supertree construction. The utility of one supertree technique, matrix representation using parsimony analysis (MRP), is demonstrated by deriving a complete phylogeny for all 271 extant species of the Carnivora from 177 literature sources. Beyond providing a 'consensus' estimate of carnivore phylogeny, the tree also indicates taxa for which the relationships remain controversial (e.g. the red panda; within canids, felids, and hyaenids) or have not been studied in any great detail (e.g. herpestids, viverrids, and intrageneric relationships in the procyonids). Times of divergence throughout the tree were also estimated from 74 literature sources based on both fossil and molecular data. We use the phylogeny to show that some lineages within the Mustelinae and Canidae contain significantly more species than expected for their age, illustrating the tree's utility for studies of macroevolution. It will also provide a useful foundation for comparative and conservational studies involving the carnivores.     

Modelling ecological niches from low numbers of occurrences: assessment of the conservation status of poorly known viverrids (Mammalia, Carnivora) across two continents

The conservation of poorly known species is difficult because of incomplete knowledge on their biology and distribution. We studied the contribution of two ecological niche modelling tools, the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Prediction (GARP) and maximum entropy (Maxent), in assessing potential ranges and distributional connectivity among 12 of the least known African and Asian viverrids. The level of agreement between GARP and Maxent predictions was low when < 15 occurrences were available, probably indicating a minimum number below that necessary to obtain models with good predictive power. Unexpectedly, our results suggested that Maxent extrapolated more than GARP in the context of small sample sizes. Predictions were overlapped with current land use and location of protected areas to estimate the conservation status of each species. Our analyses yielded range predictions generally contradicting with extents of occurrence established by the IUCN. We evidenced a high level of disturbance within predicted distributions in West and East Africa, Sumatra, and South-East Asia, and identified within West African degraded lowlands four relatively preserved areas that might be of prime importance for the conservation of rainforest taxa. Knowing whether these species of viverrids may survive in degraded or alternative habitats is of crucial importance for further conservation planning. The level of coverage of species suitable ranges by existing and proposed IUCN reserves was low, and we recommend that the total surface of protected areas be substantially increased on both continents.     

Skull morphology and functionality of extant Felidae (Mammalia: Carnivora): a phylogenetic and evolutionary perspective

Felids morphology and ecological role as hypercarnivores are quite constant, despite considerable body size variation among species. Skull morphological and functional features of 34 extant cat species were evaluated under a phylogenetic framework of the Felidae. Twenty skull measurements were analysed through Principal Component Analysis to assess the species morphofunctional spaces. Force indexes were obtained from static equilibrium equations to infer jaw mechanics. Correlations between morphological, functional, and ecological traits were tested by phylogenetically independent contrasts. In spite of the general cat‐like pattern, specific features on the skulls allowed differentiation among groups. Acinonyx jubatus, for instance, showed a shorter and shallower temporal fossa than other big cats, and their bite functionality is marked by an increased contribution of the masseteric system. A morphofunctional dichotomy between Neotropical and Eurasian/African small cats was detected, and is associated with the major transversal axes of the skulls. According to the contrast analyses, the skull size is correlated with the bite force and prey size, but it is uncorrelated with the variations on jaw mechanics (from temporalis or masseter muscle optimizations). Also, there was no correlation between functional differences on jaw muscles and the ratio of prey weight to cat weight. The efficiency of the jaw apparatus among cats is quite consistent; therefore, the different evolutionary trends of jaw mechanics seem to be caused by the casuistic fixation of phenotypical variations, rather than by specific adaptative selections. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 161 , 414–462.     

Topography of the chorda tympani nerve and the tensor tympani muscle in carnivores provides a new synapomorphy for Herpestidae (Carnivora,Mammalia)

The topographical relationship of the chorda tympani nerve (chorda tympani) to the tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear of carnivores provides new phylogenetic information. The examination of histological serial sections of 16 carnivore species representing most families revealed two distinct character states concerning the course of the chorda tympani: a hypotensoric state with the nerve running below the insertion tendon of the tensor tympani muscle, and an epitensoric state with the nerve running above the tendon. The shift from the plesiomorphic hypotensoric chorda tympani to the apomorphic epitensoric condition occurred once in carnivore phylogeny: Only in the herpestid species under study does the chorda tympani cross above the tensor tympani muscle. Therefore, we introduce the epitensoric pattern as a new synapomorphy for herpestids. Within the herpestids we find the following structural distinctions: Herpestes javanicus and Galerella sanguinea have a chorda tympani running in a sulcus directly above the insertion of the tensor tympani muscle, whereas in the eusocial herpestid species Suricata suricatta and Mungos mungo the chorda tympani lies far above the insertion of the muscle. J. Morphol. 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Genetic influences on cranial form: variation among ranch and feral American mink Mustela vison (Mammalia: Mustelidae)

Multivariate statistical techniques were used to examine craniometric variation within and between ranch and feral populations of American mink (Mustela vison). An examination of variation between ranches revealed that differences are greater between ranches than within ranches, although all comparisons were statistically significant. There is highly significant variation within a population of mink sampled from a single ranch during a short time period; female mink of different pelt colour are differentiable by their skull shape but not by skull size. This offers evidence for a genetic background to cranial variation in ranch mink. Cranial sexual dimorphism is reduced in ranch mink, when compared to feral populations, and size accounts for a lesser proportion of the variation between the sexes in ranched populations. In addition, the skulls of ranched mink are larger, have a relatively shorter palate and a relatively narrower postorbital constriction compared to their feral counterparts. We believe this reduced dimorphism to be a product of relaxed sexual selection, lack of resource competition and selective breeding for larger specimens of both sexes within ranch populations.     

Evidence of strong stabilizing effects on the evolution of boreoeutherian (Mammalia) dental proportions

The dentition is an extremely important organ in mammals with variation in timing and sequence of eruption, crown morphology, and tooth size enabling a range of behavioral, dietary, and functional adaptations across the class. Within this suite of variable mammalian dental phenotypes, relative sizes of teeth reflect variation in the underlying genetic and developmental mechanisms. Two ratios of postcanine tooth lengths capture the relative size of premolars to molars (premolar–molar module, PMM), and among the three molars (molar module component, MMC), and are known to be heritable, independent of body size, and to vary significantly across primates. Here, we explore how these dental traits vary across mammals more broadly, focusing on terrestrial taxa in the clade of Boreoeutheria (Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria). We measured the postcanine teeth of N = 1,523 boreoeutherian mammals spanning six orders, 14 families, 36 genera, and 49 species to test hypotheses about associations between dental proportions and phylogenetic relatedness, diet, and life history in mammals. Boreoeutherian postcanine dental proportions sampled in this study carry conserved phylogenetic signal and are not associated with variation in diet. The incorporation of paleontological data provides further evidence that dental proportions may be slower to change than is dietary specialization. These results have implications for our understanding of dental variation and dietary adaptation in mammals.     

Diversity and paleoenviromental significance of Brazilian fossil Galictis (Carnivora: Mustelidae)

The evolutionary history of the genus Galictis in South America probably begins after the Great American Biotic Interchange. Two species are recognised: Galictis vittata and Galictis cuja. The latter are more frequently found in open areas in southern South America and the first occurs in humid forests from northern South America to Central America. Apparently, they do not occur in sympatry. Both are differentiate by the presence of a metaconid in the first inferior molar of G. vittata and for its bigger size when compared to G. cuja. The fossil record of Galictis is scarce, G. cuja is known by few specimens from Argentina, Chile and Brazil; G. vittata have only one record from Southern Brazil. The specimens related to this record were collected by Peter Lund and are housed at the Statens Naturhistoriske Museum. However, the specimens published by Lund are not fossils. Thus, it is presented here other unpublished specimens collected by Lund and housed at the same museum that we recognise as the first G. vittata fossils. Additionally, it is described here the first fossil record for G. cuja from the late Pleistocene of Brazil – an almost complete mandible recovered from sedimentary deposits from Central Brazil.