Proteomics of photoreceptor outer segments identifies a subset of SNARE and Rab proteins implicated in membrane vesicle trafficking and fusion

The outer segment is a specialized compartment of vertebrate rod and cone photoreceptor cells where phototransduction takes place. In rod cells it consists of an organized stack of disks enclosed by a separate plasma membrane. Although most proteins involved in phototransduction have been identified and characterized, little is known about the proteins that are responsible for outer segment structure and renewal. In this study we used a tandem mass spectrometry-based proteomics approach to identify proteins in rod outer segment preparations as an initial step in defining their roles in photoreceptor structure, function, renewal, and degeneration. Five hundred and sixteen proteins were identified including 41 proteins that function in rod and cone phototransduction and the visual cycle and most proteins previously shown to be involved in outer segment structure and metabolic pathways. In addition, numerous proteins were detected that have not been previously reported to be present in outer segments including a subset of Rab and SNARE proteins implicated in vesicle trafficking and membrane fusion. Western blotting and immunofluorescence microscopy confirmed the presence of Rab 11b, Rab 18, Rab 1b, and Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor in outer segments. The SNARE proteins, VAMP2/3, syntaxin 3, N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor, and Munc 18 detected in outer segment preparations by mass spectrometry and Western blotting were also observed in outer segments by immunofluorescence microscopy. Syntaxin 3 and N-ethylmaleimide- sensitive factor had a restricted localization at the base of the outer segments, whereas VAMP2/3 and Munc 18 were distributed throughout the outer segments. These results suggest that Rab and SNARE proteins play a role in vesicle trafficking and membrane fusion as part of the outer segment renewal process. The data set generated in this study is a valuable resource for further analysis of photoreceptor outer segment structure and function.     

Localization of peripherin/rds in the disk membranes of cone and rod photoreceptors: relationship to disk membrane morphogenesis and retinal degeneration

The outer segments of vertebrate rod photoreceptor cells consist of an ordered stack of membrane disks, which, except for a few nascent disks at the base of the outer segment, is surrounded by a separate plasma membrane. Previous studies indicate that the protein, peripherin or peripherin/rds, is localized along the rim of mature disks of rod outer segments. A mutation in the gene for this protein has been reported to be responsible for retinal degeneration in the rds mouse. In the present study, we have shown by immunogold labeling of rat and ground squirrel retinas that peripherin/rds is present in the disk rims of cone outer segments as well as rod outer segments. Additionally, in the basal regions of rod and cone outer segments, where disk morphogenesis occurs, we have found that the distribution of peripherin/rds is restricted to a region that is adjacent to the cilium. Extension of its distribution from the cilium coincides with the formation of the disk rim. These results support the model of disk membrane morphogenesis that predicts rim formation to be a second stage of growth, after the first stage in which the ciliary plasma membrane evaginates to form open nascent disks. The results also indicate how the proteins of the outer segment plasma membrane and the disk membranes are sorted into their separate domains: different sets of proteins may be incorporated into membrane outgrowths during different growth stages of disk morphogenesis. Finally, the presence of peripherin/rds protein in both cone and rod outer segment disks, together with the phenotype of the rds mouse, which is characterized by the failure of both rod and cone outer segment formation, suggest that the same rds gene is expressed in both types of photoreceptor cells.     

The cGMP-gated channel and related glutamic acid-rich proteins interact with peripherin-2 at the rim region of rod photoreceptor disc membranes

The rod cGMP-gated channel is localized in the plasma membrane of rod photoreceptor outer segments, where it plays a central role in phototransduction. It consists of alpha- and beta-subunits that assemble into a heterotetrameric protein. Each subunit contains structural features characteristic of nucleotide-gated channels, including a cGMP-binding domain, multiple membrane-spanning segments, and a pore region. In addition, the beta-subunit has a large glutamic acid- and proline-rich region called GARP that is also expressed as two soluble protein variants. Using monoclonal antibodies in conjunction with immunoprecipitation, cross-linking, and electrophoretic techniques, we show that the cGMP-gated channel associates with the Na/Ca-K exchanger in the rod outer segment plasma membrane. This complex and soluble GARP proteins also interact with peripherin-2 oligomers in the rim region of outer segment disc membranes. These results suggest that channel/peripherin protein interactions mediated by the GARP part of the channel beta-subunit play a role in connecting the rim region of discs to the plasma membrane and in anchoring the channel.exchanger complex in the rod outer segment plasma membrane.     

Immunocytochemical localization of opsin in the cell membrane of developing rat retinal photoreceptors

Mature retinal rod photoreceptors sequester opsin in the disk and plasma membranes of the rod outer segment (ROS). Opsin is synthesized in the inner segment and is transferred to the outer segment along the connecting cilium that joins the two compartments. We have investigated early stages of retinal development during which the polarized distribution of opsin is established in the rod photoreceptor cell. Retinas were isolated from newborn rats, 3-21 d old, and incubated with affinity purified biotinyl-sheep anti-bovine opsin followed by avidin- ferritin. At early postnatal ages prior to the development of the ROS, opsin is labeled by antiopsin on the inner segment plasma membrane. At the fifth postnatal day, as ROS formation begins opsin was detected on the connecting cilium plasma membrane. However, the labeling density of the ciliary plasma membrane was not uniform: the proximal cilium was relatively unlabeled in comparison with the distal cilium and the ROS plasma membrane. In nearly mature rat retinas, opsin was no longer detected on the inner segment plasma membrane. A similar polarized distribution of opsin was also observed in adult human rod photoreceptor cells labeled with the same antibodies. These results suggest that some component(s) of the connecting cilium and its plasma membrane may participate in establishing and maintaining the polarized distribution of opsin.     

Glycoproteins specific for the retinal rod outer segment plasma membrane

Two ricin-specific glycoproteins have been identified on neuraminidase-treated rod outer segment plasma membranes of bovine retinal photoreceptor cells. Ricin-gold-dextran particles were observed by electron microscopy to densely label the surface of neuraminidase-treated rod outer segments. Western blotting of proteins separated by SDS-gel electrophoresis indicated that two ricin-binding glycoproteins of Mr 230,000 and 110,000 are specific for the plasma membrane and are not found in disk membranes. These glycoproteins can serve as specific probes for the purification of the rod outer segment plasma membrane.     

Dynamic behavior of rod photoreceptor disks

Eukaryotic cells use membrane organelles, like the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi, to carry out different functions. Vertebrate rod photoreceptors use hundreds of membrane sacs (the disks) for the detection of light. We have used fluorescent tracers and single cell imaging to study the properties of rod photoreceptor disks. Labeling of intact rod photoreceptors with membrane markers and polar tracers revealed communication between intradiskal and extracellular space. Internalized tracers moved along the length of the rod outer segment, indicating communication between the disks as well. This communication involved the exchange of both membrane and aqueous phase and had a time constant in the order of minutes. The communication pathway uses approximately 2% of the available membrane disk area and does not allow the passage of molecules larger than 10 kDa. It was possible to load the intradiskal space with fluorescent Ca(2+) and pH dyes, which reported an intradiskal Ca(2+) concentration in the order of 1 microM and an acidic pH 6.5, both of them significantly different than intracellular and extracellular Ca(2+) concentrations and pH. The results suggest that the rod photoreceptor disks are not discrete, passive sacs but rather comprise an active cellular organelle. The communication between disks may be important for membrane remodeling as well as for providing access to the intradiskal space of the whole outer segment.     

The absence of channel structures in the photoreceptor membrane of the rod disc

Comparison of electric characteristics of photoreceptor disc and plasma membranes of photoreceptor was made by means of photopotential registration from the adhized to the impregnated by lipids filters photoreceptor discs or isolated rod outer segments. The resistance of the photoreceptor disc membrane is shown to be by three orders of magnitude higher than the resistance of photoreceptor plasma membrane; namely 1-2 MOhm X cm2 versus 1-2 KOhm X cm2. This is the evidence for the absence of channel structures in the disc membrane.     

Active labeling of phosphatidylcholines by [1-14C]docosahexaenoate in isolated photoreceptor membranes

Isolated bovine rod outer segments and photoreceptor disks actively incorporated [1-14C]docosahexaenoate (22:6) into phospholipids when incubated in the presence of CoA, ATP, and Mg2+. About 80% of the esterified fatty acid was in phosphatidylcholine (PC). Microsomal and mitochondrial fractions incorporated as much 22:6 as rod outer segments, but it was distributed among various phospholipids and neutral glycerides. The isolated photoreceptor membrane thus contains an acyl-CoA synthetase which activates the fatty acid and a docosahexaenoyl-CoA-lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase activity. The specific radioactivity of PC was higher in rod outer segments than in the other subcellular fractions. About 2/3 of the label in photoreceptor membrane PC was in its dipolyunsaturated molecular species and 1/3 in hexaenes. Dipolyunsaturated PCs showed high turnover rates of 22:6 in all three subcellular membranes, especially in mitochondria. Retinal membranes in vitro seem to take up free [14C]22:6 from the medium by simple diffusion or partition into the membrane lipid. The ability of these membranes to activate and esterify [1-14C]22:6 indicates that docosahexaenoate-containing molecular species of retina lipids, including those of photoreceptor membranes, are subject to acylation-deacylation reactions in situ.     

THE OSMOTIC BEHAVIOR OF ROD PHOTORECEPTOR OUTER SEGMENT DISCS

The permeability properties of frog rod photoreceptor outer segment discs were investigated in preparations of purified, dark-adapted, outer segment fragments by the techniques of direct volume measurement and electron microscopy. Outer segment discs were found to swell and contract reversibly in response to changes in the osmotic pressure of the bathing medium in accordance with the Boyle-van't Hoff law. By use of the criterion of reversible osmotic swelling, the disc membrane is impermeable to Na⁺, K⁺, Mg⁺², Ca⁺², Cl^-, and (PO₄)^-3 ions, whereas it is freely permeable to ammonium acetate. The disc membrane is impermeable to sucrose, although its osmotic behavior towards this substance is different from its behavior towards impermeable ions. Electron microscopy showed that the osmotic effects on the rod outer segment fragments represent changes in the intradiscal volume. Fixation with glutaraldehyde did not abolish the permeability properties of the disc membrane, and fixed membranes were still capable of osmotic volume changes. It is concluded from this study that the frog's rod photoreceptor outer segment discs are free-floating membranous organelles with an inside space separate and distinct from the photoreceptor intracellular space.     

Differential membrane protein phosphorylation in bovine retinal rod outer segment disk membranes as a function of disk age

The outer segment portion of photoreceptor rod cells is composed of a stacked array of disk membranes. Newly formed disks are found at the base of the rod outer segment (ROS) and are relatively high in membrane cholesterol. Older disks are found at the apical tip of the ROS and are low in membrane cholesterol. Disk membranes were separated based on their membrane cholesterol content and the extent of membrane protein phosphorylation determined. Light induced phosphorylation of ROS disk membrane proteins was investigated using magic angle spinning³¹P NMR. When intact rod outer segment preparations were stimulated by light, in the presence of endogenously available kinases, membrane proteins located in disks at the base of the ROS were more heavily phosphorylated than those at the tip. SDS-gel electrophoresis of the phosphorylated disk membranes subpopulations identified a phosphoprotein species with a molecular weight of approximately 68–72 kDa that was more heavily phosphorylated in newly formed disks than in old disks. The identity of this phosphoprotein is presently under investigation. When the phosphorylation reaction was carried out in isolated disk membrane preparations with exogenously added co-factors and kinases, there was no preferential protein phosphorylation. Taken collectively, these results suggest that within the ROS there is a protein phosphorylation gradient that maybe indicative of co-factor or kinase heterogeneity.     

The cGMP-gated channel of the rod photoreceptor cell characterization and orientation of the amino terminus.

The molecular properties and orientation of the cGMP-gated cation channel of bovine rod outer segment membranes were studied using biochemical and immunochemical methods. Western blots labeled with anti-channel monoclonal antibodies indicate that the channel has a subunit Mr of 63,000 in bovine rod outer segment membranes prepared in the presence and absence of protease inhibitors and in rod outer segments from other mammalian retinas. The channel has an apparent Mr of 78,000 in both COS-1 cells and Xenopus oocytes expressing the cloned cDNA. NH2-terminal sequence analysis indicates that the lower Mr of the channel in rod outer segments is caused by the absence of the first 92 amino acids predicted by cDNA sequence analysis. Immunofluorescent and immunogold labeling has confirmed that the 63,000 form of the channel is present in rod outer segments. These results indicate that photoreceptor cell-specific co-translational or post-translational cleavage of the NH2-terminal segment of the channel occurs prior or during the incorporation of the channel into the rod outer segment plasma membrane. Immunogold labeling studies using site-directed antibodies also indicate that the NH2-terminal segment of the rod outer segment channel is exposed on the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane.     

Retinal photoreceptor neurons and pinealocytes accumulate mRNA for interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP)

We have utilized cDNA probes and in situ hybridization techniques to define the subcellular localization of interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein (IRBP) mRNA in bovine and monkey retinas. Results suggest that the mRNA is mainly localized in rod photoreceptor neurons within the outer nuclear layer of the retina. IRBP mRNA is also abundant in cells of the pineal gland, strengthening the analogy between rod photoreceptor cells and pinealocytes.     

Phosphorylation reactions in bovine rod outer segments studied by 32P-labelling of intact retina

The protein phosphorylation pattern in the intact bovine retina has been investigated by labelling with 32P-phosphate under incubation conditions that preserve the electrical photoresponse of the photoreceptor cells. The phosphorylation of rod outer segment proteins was analysed after isolation of outer segments from the labelled retina. The global influence of light, Ca2+ and the phosphodiesterase inhibitor, isobutylmethylxanthine, on protein phosphorylation in rod outer segments was analysed. A 12 kDa protein is the most prominent phosphorylated species in the intact bovine retina. Its phosphorylation is increased by light and/or Ca2+. Evidence is presented that this strongly phosphorylated protein is not located in the outer segment, and we suggest that it may be a synaptic protein. Retinal rod outer segment membrane proteins with apparent molecular weights of 245, 226, 125, 110, 50, 46, 38 and 20 all show light-stimulated phosphorylation. Lowering the extracellular Ca2+ levels results in a decrease of the phosphorylation level of some of these proteins, viz. at 125, 50, 38 and probably at 20 kDa. Such proteins, whose phosphorylation level is influenced both by light and by elevated Ca2+, are candidates for mediators of phototransduction. The phosphorylated species at 245, 226, 110, 50 and 20 kDa are enriched in rod outer segment plasma membrane preparations. These protein species could participate in the light-regulated modulation of the Na+-conductance of the plasma membrane.     

Identification and characterization of all-trans-retinol dehydrogenase from photoreceptor outer segments, the visual cycle enzyme that reduces all-trans-retinal to all-trans-retinol

Retinol dehydrogenase (RDH), the enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of all-trans-retinal to all-trans-retinol within the photoreceptor outer segment, was the first visual cycle enzymatic activity to be identified. Previous work has shown that this enzyme utilizes NADPH, shows a marked preference for all-trans-retinal over 11-cis-retinal, and is tightly associated with the outer segment membrane. This paper reports the identification of a novel member of the short chain dehydrogenase/reductase family, photoreceptor RDH (prRDH), using subtraction and normalization of retina cDNA, high throughput sequencing, and data base homology searches to detect retina-specific genes. Bovine and human prRDH are highly homologous and are most closely related to 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1. The enzymatic properties of recombinant bovine prRDH closely match those previously reported for RDH activity in crude bovine rod outer segment preparations. In situ hybridization and RNA blotting show that the PRRDH gene is expressed specifically in photoreceptor cells, and protein blotting and immunocytochemistry show that prRDH localizes exclusively to both rod and cone outer segments and that prRDH is tightly associated with outer segment membranes. Taken together, these data indicate that prRDH is the enzyme responsible for the reduction of all-trans-retinal to all-trans-retinol within the photoreceptor outer segment.     

Sulla organizzazione dello strato granulare esterno e della membrana limitante esterna nella retina di coniglio

Summary The organisation of the outer nuclear layer and the structure of the outer limiting membrane of rabbit retina have been studied. In specimens stained by the Golgi method it was observed that in the outer nuclear layer each Müller cell envelops with its thin lamellar expansions ten to fifteen rod and cone cell bodies.The only cytoplasmic organelles in rod and cone cell bodies are a few free ribosomes and smooth surfaced vesicles. Neurotubules are prominent in the outer and inner fibres of the rods and cones.The processes of the Müller cells are distinctive because of the presence of many glycogen granules and glial filaments. Also present but only found near the outer limiting membrane are mitochondria, occasional centrioles and cilia that lack inner fibres. Long microvilli originate from the Müller cell processes on the scleral side of the outer limiting membrane.The photoreceptor cells on the vitreal side of the outer limiting membrane are completely isolated from each other by glial processes. On the scleral side of the membrane, the inner segments of the photoreceptor cells are not completely isolated by glial processes and so are frequently found in mutual contact. In the outer nuclear layer the granule of each photoreceptor is surrounded by more than one glial process while the fibres are often deeply embedded in a single glial process and provided with a mesofibre.At the level of the outer limiting membrane the visual cells and the glial expansions enveloping them are joined together by a junctional complex formed by a zonula adhaerens interposed between two very short zonulae occludentes. The same junctional complex joins to each other the contiguous expansions of the Müller cells and the mesofibres of the visual elements.     

Biosynthesis and vectorial transport of opsin on vesicles in retinal rod photoreceptors

Retinal rod photoreceptor cells absorb light at one end and establish synaptic contacts on the other. Light sensitivity is conferred by a set of membrane and cytosol proteins that are gathered at one end of the cell to form a specialized organelle, the rod outer segment (ROS). The ROS is composed of rhodopsin-laden, flattened disk-shaped membranes enveloped by the cell's plasma membrane. Rhodopsin is synthesized on elements of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus near the nucleus in the inner segment. From this synthetic site, the membrane-bound apoprotein, opsin, is released from the Golgi in the membranes of small vesicles. These vesicles are transported through the cytoplasm of the inner segment until they reach its apical plasma membrane. At that site, opsin-laden vesicles appear to fuse near the base of the connecting cilium that joins the inner and outer segments. This fusion inserts opsin into the plasma membrane of the photoreceptor. Opsin becomes incorporated into the disk membrane by a process of membrane expansion and fusion to form the flattened disks of the outer segment. Within the disks, opsin is highly mobile, and rapidly rotates and traverses the disk surface. Despite its mobility in the outer segment, quantitative electron microscopic, immunocytochemical, and autoradiographic studies of opsin distribution demonstrate that little opsin is detectable in the inner segment plasma membrane, although its bilayer is in continuity with the plasma membrane of the outer segment. The photoreceptor successfully establishes the polarized distribution of its membrane proteins by restricting the redistribution of opsin after vectorially transporting it to one end of the cell on post-Golgi vesicles.     

Photodamage of rhodopsin molecule. Oxidation of SH-group

Illumination of rod outer segments with bright visible light results in the oxidation of both protein and lipid components of the photoreceptor membrane. The oxidation degree depends on the intensity and time of illumination. The inhibitors of free radical processes completely inhibit lipid oxidation and somewhat decrease protein oxidation. Photooxidation systems of lipids and rhodopsin also react differently to oxygen content in the incubation medium. Retinal is the photosensitizer of the oxidation of the photoreceptor membrane components.     

The fine structure of the pigment epithelium and photoreceptor cells of the newt,Triturus viridescens dorsalis (Rafinesque)

The morphology of the retinal pigment epithelium and photoreceptor cells has been studied in the common newt Triturus viridescens dorsalis by light, conventional transmission and scanning electron microscopy. The pigment epithelium is formed by a single layer of low rectangular cells, separated by a multilayered membrane (Bruch's membrane) from the vessels of the choriocapillaris. The scleral border of the pigment epithelium is highly infolded and each epithelial cell contains smooth endoplasmic reticulum, myeloid bodies, mitochondria, lysosomes, phagosomes and an oval nucleus. Inner, pigment laden, epithelial processes surround the photoreceptor outer and inner segments. The three retinal photoreceptor types, rods, single cones and double cones, differ in both external and internal appearance. The newt, rod, outer segments appear denser than the cones in both light and electron micrographs, due to a greater number of rod lamellae per unit distance of outer segment and to the presence of electron dense intralamellar bands. The rod outer segments possess deep incisures in the lamellae while the cone lamellae lack incisures. Both rod and cone outer segments are supported by a peripheral array of dendritic processes containing longitudinal filaments which originate in the inner segment. The inner segment mitochondria, forming the rod ellipsoid, arelong and narrow while those in the cone are spherical to oval in shape. The inner segments of all three receptor cell types also contain a glycogen-filled paraboloid and a myoid region, just outside the nucleus, rich in both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The elongate, cylindrical nuclei differ in density. The rod nuclei are denser than those of the cones, contain clumped chromatin and usually extend further vitreally. Similarly, the cytoplasm of the rod synaptic terminal is denser than its cone counterpart and contains synaptic vesicles almost twice as large as those of the cones. Photoreceptor synapses in rods and cones are established by both superficial and invaginated contacts with bipolar or horizontal cells.     

The role of cyclic nucleotides in visual excitation

Early studies of vertebrate rod outer segment cyclic nucleotide metabolism indicated that illumination of photoreceptor membranes causes a marked reduction in apparent cyclic AMP production. Current studies confirm these observations and explain light effects in terms of an unanticipated, ATP-dependent activation of phosphodiesterase. Here we present recent progress in our understanding of the components and mechanisms of this light dependent activation. We also describe the characteristics and substrate preference (cyclic GMP) of the photoreceptor phosphodiesterase, and a suggested model for the role of cyclic nucleotides in photoreceptor physiology.     

Activation and membrane binding of retinal protein kinase Balpha/Akt1 is regulated through light-dependent generation of phosphoinositides

Akt is a phospholipid-binding protein and the downstream effector of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway. Akt has three isoforms: Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3. All of these isoforms are expressed in rod photoreceptor cells, but the individual functions of each isoform are not known. In this study, we found that light induces the activation of Akt1. The membrane binding of Akt1 to rod outer segments (ROS) is insulin receptor (IR)/PI3K-dependent as demonstrated by reduced binding of Akt1 to ROS membranes of photoreceptor-specific IR knockout mice. Membrane binding of Akt1 is mediated through its Pleckstrin homology (PH) domain. To determine whether binding of the PH domain of Akt1 to photoreceptor membranes is regulated by light, various green fluorescent protein (GFP)/Akt1-PH domain fusion proteins were expressed in rod photoreceptors of transgenic Xenopus laevis under the control of the Xenopus opsin promoter. The R25C mutant PH domain of Akt1, which does not bind phosphoinositides, failed to associate with plasma membranes in a light-dependent manner. This study suggests that light-dependent generation of phosphoinositides regulates the activation and membrane binding of Akt1 in vivo. Our results also suggest that actin cytoskeletal organization may be regulated through light-dependent generation of phosphoinositides.