GABABR 异二聚体和GB1-GB1 同二聚体中的GB1 亚基的作用

GABABR属于C族G蛋白偶联受体,是中枢神经细胞重要的抑制性神经递质受体.在体内GABABR由GB1和GB2两个基因编码,1998年以来研究者证实GABABR是由GB1和GB2形成的异二聚体,但近年来的研究表明,GB1也可以单独形成GB1 -GB1同二聚体并在体内行使功能.本文系统介绍了GB1亚基的分类,在GB2存在或不存在时的表达,以及在GABABR异二聚体和GB1-GB1同二聚体激活过程中所扮演的角色和生理功能;同时也展望了这些研究成果对于基础研究和药学研究的意义.     

c-Abl蛋白酪氨酸激酶形成同源二聚体

c-Abl是非受体酪氨酸激酶,它在细胞内被一些基因毒性的、氧化的及其它形式的压力所激活。目前研究证明：应用标记的c-Abl发现其在细胞内可以相互形成同源二聚体,并且一分子c-Abl的N末端区域与相应的另一分子的C末端相互作用形成二聚体。实验进一步表明： cAbl SH3 结构域结合到另一c-Abl 分子富含脯氨酸的C-末端约958-982氨基酸区域。如果去除c-Abl 富含脯氨酸的结构域,就会阻止二聚体的形成。这些结果首先证实了c-Abl在细胞内可以相互形成同源二聚体,并暗示着二聚体的形成可能影响着c-Abl活性的调节。     

真核生物集缩素SMC2/SMC4异二聚体的结构解析研究进展

真核生物集缩素(condensin)的主要作用是在细胞周期过程中调控染色体的动态变化。它是一种含5个亚基的蛋白质,由1个起核心催化作用的SMC2(structure maintenance of chromosomes 2)/SMC4异二聚体和3个起调节作用的非SMC亚基组成。目前,关于集缩素中SMC2/SMC4异二聚体的体内构象和分子作用机制仍不清楚。最近,对SMC2/SMC4异二聚体的结构解析取得许多新进展。该文在简要介绍SMC蛋白的基本结构、真核生物集缩素的发现、真核生物集缩素的结构组成的基础上,对近年来SMC2/SMC4异二聚体的结构解析的研究进展作一综述,以期为相关研究提供参考。     

C 族GPCRs 寡聚体的激活机制

C族GPCRs是体内重要的受体亚家族,参与众多重要的生理和病理进程。该族受体的单体包含七螺旋跨膜结构(heptahelical transmembrane domain,HD)、捕蝇草模块(venus flytrap domain,VFT)和半胱氨酸富集区(cysteine-rich domain,CRD)、C末端等多个功能域,同时形成组成性的二聚体和寡聚体。这种多功能域寡聚体结构使该家族受体的激活机制非常复杂,本文回顾和介绍了多年以来对该家族受体在单体、二聚体、寡聚体等多个层面的激活机制研究的历程和进展,同时也展望了进一步的研究方向和这些研究成果对于开发新型药物的意义。     

大鼠脊髓蛛网膜下腔注射γ-氨基丁酸受体激动剂对降低血压和徐缓心率的作用

给大鼠脊髓蛛网膜下腔注射γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)受体激动剂异鹅羔胺(0.125—0.25μg)能显著降低动物的动脉血压和心率。这种作用可被 GABA 受体阻断剂氯甲基荷包牡丹碱(1.0μg)所翻转,且具有剂量-效应关系。另一种 GABA 受体激动剂 THIP(5μg)以及GABA(500μg)也同样具有降低血压和心率的作用。说明激活脊髓内 GABA 受体具有降低血压和减慢心率的作用。肾上腺素α受体阻断剂育亨宾(30μg)能翻转可乐宁(0.25μg)的降压作用,但不能对抗异鹅羔胺的作用;GABA 受体阻断剂氯甲基荷包牡丹碱可翻转异鹅羔胺的作用,对可乐宁则无效。说明脊髓内异鹅羔胺和可乐宁降血压和减慢心率的作用没有相互的依存关系。     

P物质抑制培养大鼠海马大锥体细胞GABA—激活电流

研究主要探讨P物质（SP）对GABA－激活电流的调制。实验在培养的新生大鼠海马大锥体细胞上进行。应用全细胞膜片箝技术记录GABA激活的内向电流。在被检的大锥体细胞中,有72％（66／92）的神经元对GABA和SP同时敏感,预后SP后,GABA激活电流明显地被抑制,此抑制作用是呈剂量依赖性的。在预加10^-8,10^-7,10^-6,10^-5mol/LSP后,GABA的激活电流分别降低18％,24．8％,25．9％和28％,用SP的拮抗剂 spantide能阻断此种抑制作用,在电极中灌注H7（PKC抑制剂）能取消此抑制作用,上述结果提示：SP对GABA激活电流的抑制作用是SP作用于SP受体,通过胞内第二信使,使GABAA受体通道复合体胞内磷酸化所致。     

C 族GPCRs 的半胱氨酸富集区的研究进展及药学意义

C族GPCRs是体内重要的受体,参与众多重要的生理和病理进程,并具有复杂的结构和激活机制。在体内该族受体形成组成性的二聚体并具有七螺旋跨膜结构(heptahelical transmembrane domain,HD)、捕蝇草模块(venus flytrap domain,VFT)和半胱氨酸富集区(cysteine-rich domain,CRD)。本文系统介绍了近年来CRD单体的序列和结构解析,以及参与受体激活过程的机制研究的历程和进展。同时也展望了这些基础研究成果对于开发新的更具有成药性的以C族GPCRs为靶点的变构剂的指导意义。     

一类新型的转录因子家族:信号转导剂和转录激活剂

信号转导剂和转录激活剂（ＳＴＡＴ）是近三四年才发现的一类新型转录因子家族。许多配体,尤其是细胞因子,能使ＳＴＡＴ的酪氨酸磷酸化而激活。激活的ＳＴＡＴ蛋白质能形成同二聚体和异二聚体,进入细胞核内结合ＤＮＡ序列,调节多个基因表达。这些既在胞浆里起信号转导作用又在胞核内起激活转录作用的双功能蛋白质的发现,为细胞因子信号转导通路研究揭开了新的一页。     

一类新型转录因子家族：信号转导剂和转录激活剂

信号转导剂和转录激活剂（ＳＴＡＴ）是近三四年才发现的一类新型转录因子家族。许多配体,尤其是细胞因子,能使ＳＴＡＴ的酪氨酶磷酸化而激活。激活的ＳＴＡＴ蛋白能形成同二聚体和异二聚体,进入细胞核内结合ＤＮＡ序列,调节多个基因表达。这些既在胞浆里起信号转导作用又在胞核内起激活转录作用的双功能蛋白质的发现,为细胞因子信号转导路通研究揭开了新的一页。     

干扰素-λ的生物学作用

Ⅲ型干扰素（Interferon,IFN）,即IFN-λ,是一种新型干扰素,其家族包括IFN-λ1,IFN-λ2和IFN-λ3（也可分别称作IL-29,IL-28α和IL-28β）.IFN-λ的功能性受体复合物是由IL-28Rα（又称IFN-λR1或CRF2-12）和IL-10Rβ（又称CRF2-4）链组成的异二聚体,IFN-λ结合到受体上诱导受体异二聚体化,导致Jak-STAT信号转导途径的激活,从而发挥与Ⅰ型IFN相似的生物学效应.IFN-λ的生物学效应包括抗病毒、抗肿瘤和调节免疫活性等方面.IFN-λ很多生物学活性与临床上应用广泛的 IFN-α/β十分相似,但其受体表达局限,毒副作用相对较小,因此在抗病毒和抗肿瘤方面具有广阔的应用前景.     

A captured folding intermediate involved in dimerization and domain-swapping of GB1

Immunoglobulin binding domain B1 of streptococcal protein G (GB1), a small (56 residues), stable, single domain protein, is one of the most extensively used model systems in the area of protein folding and design. The recently determined NMR structure of a quadruple mutant (HS#124F26A, L5V/F30V/Y33F/A34F) revealed a domain-swapped dimer that dissociated into a partially folded, monomeric species at low micromolar protein concentrations. Here, we have characterized this monomeric, partially folded species by NMR and show that extensive conformational heterogeneity for a substantial portion of the polypeptide chain exists. Exchange between the conformers within the monomer ensemble on the microsecond to millisecond timescale renders the majority of backbone amide resonances broadened beyond detection. Despite these extensive temporal and spatial fluctuations, the overall architecture of the monomeric mutant protein resembles that of wild-type GB1 and not the monomer unit of the domain-swapped dimer.     

The point mutation A34F causes dimerization of GB1

The immunoglobulin-binding domain B1 of streptococcal protein G (GB1), a very stable, small, single-domain protein, is one of the most extensively used models in the area of protein folding and design. Variants derived from a library of randomized hydrophobic core residues previously revealed alternative folds, namely a completely intertwined tetramer (Frank et al., Nat Struct Biol 2002;9:877-885) and a domain-swapped dimer (Byeon et al., J Mol Biol 2003;333:141-152). Here, we report the NMR structure of the single amino acid mutant Ala-34-Phe which exists as side-by-side dimer. The dimer dissociation constant is 27 +/- 4 microM. The dimer interface comprises two structural elements: First, the beta-sheets of the two monomers pair in an antiparallel arrangement, thereby forming an eight-stranded beta-sheet. Second, the alpha-helix is shortened, ending in a loop that engages in intermolecular contacts. The largest difference between the monomer unit in the A34F dimer and the monomeric wild-type GB1 is the dissolution of the C-terminal half of the alpha-helix associated with a pronounced slow conformational motion of the interface loop. This involves a large movement of the Tyr-33 side chain that swings out from the monomer to engage in dimer contacts.     

A protein contortionist: core mutations of GB1 that induce dimerization and domain swapping

Immunoglobulin-binding domain B1 of streptococcal protein G (GB1), a small (56 residues), stable, single-domain protein, is one of the most extensively used model systems in the area of protein folding and design. Recently, NMR and X-ray structures of a quintuple GB1 core mutant (L5V/A26F/F30V/Y33F/A34F) that showed an unexpected, intertwined tetrameric architecture were determined. Here, we report the NMR structure of another mutant, derived from the tetramer by reverting the single amino acid position F26 back to the wild-type sequence A26. The structure reveals a domain-swapped dimer that involves exchange of the second beta-hairpin. The resulting overall structure comprises an eight-stranded beta-sheet whose concave side is covered by two alpha helices. The dimer dissociates into a partially folded, monomeric species with a dissociation constant of 93(+/-10)microM.     

The effects of high concentrations of ionic liquid on GB1 protein structure and dynamics probed by high-resolution magic-angle-spinning NMR spectroscopy

Ionic liquids have great potential in biological applications and biocatalysis, as some ionic liquids can stabilize proteins and enhance enzyme activity, while others have the opposite effect. However, on the molecular level, probing ionic liquid interactions with proteins, especially in solutions containing high concentrations of ionic liquids, has been challenging. In the present work the ¹³C, ¹⁵N-enriched GB1 model protein was used to demonstrate applicability of high-resolution magic-angle-spinning (HR-MAS) NMR spectroscopy to investigate ionic liquid–protein interactions. Effect of an ionic liquid (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide, [C₄-mim]Br) on GB1was studied over a wide range of the ionic liquid concentrations (0.6–3.5 M, which corresponds to 10–60% v/v). Interactions between GB1 and [C₄-mim]Br were observed from changes in the chemical shifts of the protein backbone as well as the changes in ¹⁵N ps-ns dynamics and rotational correlation times. Site-specific interactions between the protein and [C₄-mim]Br were assigned using 3D methods under HR-MAS conditions. Thus, HR-MAS NMR is a viable tool that could aid in elucidation of molecular mechanisms of ionic liquid–protein interactions.     

A single subunit (GB2) is required for G-protein activation by the heterodimeric GABA(B) receptor.

Although G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been shown to assemble into functional homo or heteromers, the role of each protomer in G-protein activation is not known. Among the GPCRs, the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type B receptor (GABA(B)R) is the only one known so far that needs two subunits, GB1 and GB2, to function. The GB1 subunit contains the GABA binding site but is unable to activate G-proteins alone. In contrast the GB2 subunit, which does not bind GABA, has an heptahelical domain able to activate G-proteins when assembled into homodimers (Galvez, T., Duthey, B., Kniazeff, J., Blahos, J., Rovelli, G., Bettler, B., Prézeau, L., and Pin, J.-P. (2001) EMBO J. 20, 2152-2159). In the present study, we have examined the role of each subunit within the GB1-GB2 heteromer, in G-protein coupling. To that end, point mutations in the highly conserved third intracellular loop known to prevent G-protein activation of the related Ca-sensing or metabotropic glutamate receptors were introduced into GB1 and GB2. One mutation, L686P introduced in GB2 prevents the formation of a functional receptor, even though the heteromer reaches the cell surface, and even though the mutated subunit still associates with GB1 and increases GABA affinity on GB1. This was observed either in HEK293 cells where the activation of the G-protein was assessed by measurement of inositol phosphate accumulation, or in cultured neurons where the inhibition of the Ca(2+) channel current was measured. In contrast, the same mutation when introduced into GB1 does not modify the G-protein coupling properties of the heteromeric GABA(B) receptor either in HEK293 cells or in neurons. Accordingly, whereas in all GPCRs the same protein is responsible for both agonist binding and G-protein activation, these two functions are assumed by two distinct subunits in the GABA(B) heteromer: one subunit, GB1, binds the agonists whereas the other, GB2, activates the G-protein. This illustrates the importance of a single subunit for G-protein activation within a dimeric receptor.     

Allosteric interactions between GB1 and GB2 subunits are required for optimal GABA(B) receptor function

Recent studies on G-protein-coupled receptors revealed that they can dimerize. However, the role of each subunit in the activation process remains unclear. The gamma-amino-n-butyric acid type B (GABA(B)) receptor is comprised of two subunits: GB1 and GB2. Both consist of an extracellular domain (ECD) and a heptahelical domain composed of seven transmembrane alpha-helices, loops and the C-terminus (HD). Whereas GB1 ECD plays a critical role in ligand binding, GB2 is required not only to target GB1 subunit to the cell surface but also for receptor activation. Here, by analysing chimeric GB subunits, we show that only GB2 HD contains the determinants required for G-protein signalling. However, the HD of GB1 improves coupling efficacy. Conversely, although GB1 ECD is sufficient to bind GABA(B) ligands, the ECD of GB2 increases the agonist affinity on GB1, and is necessary for agonist activation of the receptor. These data indicate that multiple allosteric interactions between the two subunits are required for wild-type functioning of the GABA(B) receptor and highlight further the importance of the dimerization process in GPCR activation.     

GABAB receptor inhibits tumor progression and epithelial-mesenchymal transition via the regulation of Hippo/YAP1 pathway in colorectal cancer

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Type B Receptor (GABABR) plays essential roles in tumor progression. However, the function of GABABR in colorectal cancer (CRC) needs further clarification. As the main part of GABABR, GABABR1 expression was identified significantly lower in tumor tissues than those in non-tumor normal tissues and that CRC patients with high GABABR1 expression lived longer. Further studies indicated that knockdown of GABABR1 elevated CRC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Furthermore, knockdown of GABABR1 activated the expression of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related proteins N-cadherin and Vimentin, whereas decrease the protein level of E-cadherin. In addition, activation of Hippo/YAP1 signaling contributes to the GABABR1 down-regulation promoted proliferation, migration, invasion and EMT in CRC cells. At last, we verified the contribution of Hippo/YAP1 signaling in the GABABR1 down-regulation impaired biological phenotype of colon cancer cells in vivo. In summary, these data indicate that GABABR1 impairs the migration and invasion of CRC cells by inhibiting EMT and the Hippo/YAP1 pathway, suggesting that GABABR1 could be a potential therapeutic target for CRC.     

GB1 is not a two-state folder: identification and characterization of an on-pathway intermediate

The folding pathway of the small α/β protein GB1 has been extensively studied during the past two decades using both theoretical and experimental approaches. These studies provided a consensus view that the protein folds in a two-state manner. Here, we reassessed the folding of GB1, both by experiments and simulations, and detected the presence of an on-pathway intermediate. This intermediate has eluded earlier experimental characterization and is distinct from the collapsed state previously identified using ultrarapid mixing. Failure to identify the presence of an intermediate affects some of the conclusions that have been drawn for GB1, a popular model for protein folding studies.