Wnt signaling induces vulva development in the nematode Pristionchus pacificus

The Caenorhabditis elegans vulva is induced by a member of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family that is expressed in the gonadal anchor cell, representing a prime example of signaling processes in animal development. Comparative studies indicated that vulva induction has changed rapidly during evolution. However, nothing was known about the molecular mechanisms underlying these differences. By analyzing deletion mutants in five Wnt pathway genes, we show that Wnt signaling induces vulva formation in Pristionchus pacificus. A Ppa-bar-1/beta-catenin deletion is completely vulvaless. Several Wnt ligands and receptors act redundantly in vulva induction, and Ppa-egl-20/Wnt; Ppa-mom-2/Wnt; Ppa-lin-18/Ryk triple mutants are strongly vulvaless. Wnt ligands are differentially expressed in the somatic gonad, the anchor cell, and the posterior body region, respectively. In contrast, previous studies indicated that Ppa-lin-17, one of the Frizzled-type receptors, has a negative role in vulva formation. We found that mutations in Ppa-bar-1 and Ppa-egl-20 suppress the phenotype of Ppa-lin-17. Thus, an unexpected complexity of Wnt signaling is involved in vulva induction and vulva repression in P. pacificus. This study provides the first molecular identification of the inductive vulva signal in a nematode other than Caenorhabditis.     

Evolution and development — the nematode vulva as a case study

To understand how morphological characters change during evolution, we need insight into the evolution of developmental processes. Comparative developmental approaches that make use of our fundamental understanding of development in certain model organisms have been initiated for different animal systems and flowering plants. Nematodes provide a useful experimental system with which to investigate the genetic and molecular alterations underlying evolutionary changes of cell fate specification in development, by comparing different species to the genetic model system Caenorhabditis elegans. In this review, I will first discuss the different types of evolutionary alterations seen at the cellular level by focusing mainly on the analysis of vulva development in different species. The observed alterations involve changes in cell lineage, cell migration and cell death, as well as induction and cell competence. I then describe a genetic approach in the nematode Pristionchus pacificus that might identify those genetic and molecular processes that cause evolutionary changes of cell fate specification.     

As good as they get: cells in nematode vulva development and evolution

Cells are important modules of biological systems, and many evolutionary alterations involve changes in cell determination and cell proliferation. Genetic and molecular comparisons of nematode vulva development between Caenorhabditis, Pristionchus and Oscheius indicate that although the vulva is a stable organ, cell determination and proliferation change dramatically during nematode evolution.     

Trends, stasis, and drift in the evolution of nematode vulva development

BACKGROUND: A surprising amount of developmental variation has been observed for otherwise highly conserved features, a phenomenon known as developmental system drift. Either stochastic processes (e.g., drift and absence of selection-independent constraints) or deterministic processes (e.g., selection or constraints) could be the predominate mechanism for the evolution of such variation. We tested whether evolutionary patterns of change were unbiased or biased, as predicted by the stochastic or deterministic hypotheses, respectively. As a model, we used the nematode vulva, a highly conserved, essential organ, the development of which has been intensively studied in the model systems Caenorhabditis elegans and Pristionchus pacificus. RESULTS: For 51 rhabditid species, we analyzed more than 40 characteristics of vulva development, including cell fates, fate induction, cell competence, division patterns, morphogenesis, and related aspects of gonad development. We then defined individual characters and plotted their evolution on a phylogeny inferred for 65 species from three nuclear gene sequences. This taxon-dense phylogeny provides for the first time a highly resolved picture of rhabditid evolution and allows the reconstruction of the number and directionality of changes in the vulva development characters. We found an astonishing amount of variation and an even larger number of evolutionary changes, suggesting a high degree of homoplasy (convergences and reversals). Surprisingly, only two characters showed unbiased evolution. Evolution of all other characters was biased. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that developmental evolution is primarily governed by selection and/or selection-independent constraints, not stochastic processes such as drift in unconstrained phenotypic space.     

Robustness from flexibility in the fungal circadian clock

Background  

Robustness is a central property of living systems, enabling function to be maintained against environmental perturbations. A key challenge is to identify the structures in biological circuits that confer system-level properties such as robustness. Circadian clocks allow organisms to adapt to the predictable changes of the 24-hour day/night cycle by generating endogenous rhythms that can be entrained to the external cycle. In all organisms, the clock circuits typically comprise multiple interlocked feedback loops controlling the rhythmic expression of key genes. Previously, we showed that such architectures increase the flexibility of the clock's rhythmic behaviour. We now test the relationship between flexibility and robustness, using a mathematical model of the circuit controlling conidiation in the fungus Neurospora crassa.     

The nematode even-skipped homolog vab-7 regulates gonad and vulva position in Pristionchus pacificus

In free-living nematodes, developmental processes like the formation of the vulva, can be studied at a cellular level. Cell lineage and ablation studies have been carried out in various nematode species and multiple changes in vulval patterning have been identified. In Pristionchus pacificus, vulva formation differs from Caenorhabditis elegans with respect to several autonomous and conditional aspects of cell fate specification. To understand the molecular basis of these evolutionary changes, we have performed a genetic analysis of vulva formation in P. pacificus. Here, we describe two mutants where the vulva is shifted posteriorly, affecting which precursor cells will form vulval tissue in P. pacificus. Mutant animals show a concomitant posterior displacement of the gonadal anchor cell, indicating that the gonad and the vulva are affected in a similar way. We show that mutations in the even-skipped homolog of nematodes, vab-7, cause these posterior displacements. In addition, cell ablation studies in the vab-7 mutant indicate that the altered position of the gonad not only changes the cell fate pattern but also the developmental competence of vulval precursor cells. Investigation of Cel-vab-7 mutant animals showed a similar but weaker vulva defective phenotype to the one described for Ppa-vab-7.     

Robustness,flexibility, and the role of lateral inhibition in the neurogenic network

BACKGROUND: Many gene networks used by developing organisms have been conserved over long periods of evolutionary time. Why is that? We showed previously that a model of the segment polarity network in Drosophila is robust to parameter variation and is likely to act as a semiautonomous patterning module. Is this true of other networks as well? RESULTS: We present a model of the core neurogenic network in Drosophila. Our model exhibits at least three related pattern-resolving behaviors that the real neurogenic network accomplishes during embryogenesis in Drosophila. Furthermore, we find that it exhibits these behaviors across a wide range of parameter values, with most of its parameters able to vary more than an order of magnitude while it still successfully forms our test patterns. With a single set of parameters, different initial conditions (prepatterns) can select between different behaviors in the network's repertoire. We introduce two new measures for quantifying network robustness that mimic recombination and allelic divergence and use these to reveal the shape of the domain in the parameter space in which the model functions. We show that lateral inhibition yields robustness to changes in prepatterns and suggest a reconciliation of two divergent sets of experimental results. Finally, we show that, for this model, robustness confers functional flexibility. CONCLUSIONS: The neurogenic network is robust to changes in parameter values, which gives it the flexibility to make new patterns. Our model also offers a possible resolution of a debate on the role of lateral inhibition in cell fate specification.     

Chromatin diminution in nematode development

Chromatin diminution in Parascaris and Ascaris represents the classical case of a developmentally programmed genome rearrangement. The process is very specific with respect to ontogenetic timing and chromosomal localization, and involves chromosomal breakage, new telomere formation and DNA degradation. Recent evidence from Ascaris lumbricoides var. suum suggests that chromatin diminution might have a function in gene regulation.     

Evolution of nematode development

Multiple evolutionary variations occur in the cellular and genetic programming of nematode development. Many changes involve alterations of inductive interactions. Surprisingly, inductive processes vary during evolution, irrespective of changes in the final cell lineages and morphological structures. Genetic studies in some nematodes also shed light on the underlying mechanisms of evolutionary change.     

Robustness and evolvability in the B-system of flower development

Background

Gene duplication has often been invoked as a key mechanism responsible for evolution of new morphologies. The floral homeotic B-group gene family has undergone a number of gene duplication events, and yet the functions of these genes appear to be largely conserved. However, detailed comparative analysis has indicated that such duplicate genes have considerable cryptic variability in their functions. In the Solanaceae, two duplicate B-group gene lineages have been retained in three subfamilies. Comparisons of orthologous genes across members of the Solanaceae have demonstrated that the combined function of all four B-gene members is to establish petal and stamen identity, but that this function was partitioned differently in each species. These observations emphasize both the robustness and the evolvability of the B-system.

Scope

We provide an overview of how the B-function genes can robustly specify petal and stamen identity and at the same time evolve through changes in protein–protein interaction, gene expression patterns, copy number variation or alterations in the downstream genes they control. By using mathematical models we explore regulatory differences between species and how these impose constraints on downstream gene regulation.

Conclusions

Evolvability of the B-genes can be understood through the multiple ways in which the B-system can be robust. Quantitative approaches should allow for the incorporation of more biological realism in the representations of these regulatory systems and this should contribute to understanding the constraints under which different B-systems can function and evolve. This, in turn, can provide a better understanding of the ways in which B-genes have contributed to flower diversity.     

Stochasticity accelerates nematode egg development

Day-degrees models of nematode development assume that temperature stochasticity has no effect on the development rate of infective stages as long as the mean temperature is held constant. This assumption was tested in this study. Unembryonated Heterakis gallinarum eggs were subjected to nocturnal and diurnal daily temperature cycles at 12 and 17 C. respectively, and embryonation was compared with eggs subjected to similar stochastic daily cycles, in which random normal variations in the temperature were added to the 2 temperatures. The prediction that there is no effect of stochasticity was refuted. Embryonation of eggs subjected to variable daily cycles occurred significantly earlier than that of eggs subjected to deterministic daily cycles, suggesting that stochastic variation in temperature accelerated embryonation even though mean temperatures were the same. These findings show that the development time of H. gallnarum eggs is decreased by stochastic variation in temperature, which may have important implications for the effects of climate change on parasite availability.     

Novel cell-cell interactions during vulva development in Pristionchus pacificus

Vulva development differs between Caenorhabditis elegans and Pristionchus pacificus in several ways. Seven of 12 ventral epidermal cells in P. pacificus die of apoptosis, whereas homologous cells in C. elegans fuse with the hypodermal syncytium. Vulva induction is a one-step process in C. elegans, but requires a continuous interaction between the gonad and the epidermis in P. pacificus. Here we describe several novel cell-cell interactions in P. pacificus, focusing on the vulva precursor cell P8.p and the mesoblast M. P8.p in P. pacificus, unlike its homologous cell in C. elegans, is incompetent to respond to gonadal signaling in the absence of other vulva precursor cells, but can respond to lateral signaling from a neighboring vulval precursor. P8.p provides an inhibitory signal that determines the developmental competence of P(5,7).p. This lateral inhibition acts via the mesoblast M and is regulated by the homeotic gene Ppa-mab-5. In Ppa-mab-5 mutants, M is misspecified and provides inductive signaling to the vulval precursor cells, including P8.p. Taken together, vulva development in P. pacificus displays novel cell-cell interactions involving the mesoblast M and P8.p. In particular, P8.p represents a new ventral epidermal cell type, which is characterized by novel interactions and a specific response to gonadal signaling.     

Protruding vulva mutants identify novel loci and Wnt signaling factors that function during Caenorhabditis elegans vulva development

The Caenorhabditis elegans vulva develops from the progeny of three vulval precursor cells (VPCs) induced to divide and differentiate by a signal from the somatic gonad. Evolutionarily conserved Ras and Notch extracellular signaling pathways are known to function during this process. To identify novel loci acting in vulval development, we carried out a genetic screen for mutants having a protruding-vulva (Pvl) mutant phenotype. Here we report the initial genetic characterization of several novel loci: bar-1, pvl-4, pvl-5, and pvl-6. In addition, on the basis of their Pvl phenotypes, we show that the previously identified genes lin-26, mom-3/mig-14, egl-18, and sem-4 also function during vulval development. Our characterization indicates that (1) pvl-4 and pvl-5 are required for generation/survival of the VPCs; (2) bar-1, mom-3/mig-14, egl-18, and sem-4 play a role in VPC fate specification; (3) lin-26 is required for proper VPC fate execution; and (4) pvl-6 acts during vulval morphogenesis. In addition, two of these genes, bar-1 and mom-3/mig-14, are known to function in processes regulated by Wnt signaling, suggesting that a Wnt signaling pathway is acting during vulval development.     

Hormone signaling and phenotypic plasticity in nematode development and evolution

Phenotypic plasticity refers to the ability of an organism to adopt different phenotypes depending on environmental conditions. In animals and plants, the progression of juvenile development and the formation of dormant stages are often associated with phenotypic plasticity, indicating the importance of phenotypic plasticity for life-history theory. Phenotypic plasticity has long been emphasized as?a crucial principle in ecology and as facilitator of phenotypic evolution. In nematodes, several examples of phenotypic plasticity have been studied at the genetic and developmental level. In addition, the influence of different environmental factors has been investigated under laboratory conditions. These studies have provided detailed insight into the molecular basis of phenotypic plasticity and its?ecological and evolutionary implications. Here, we review recent studies on the formation of dauer larvae in Caenorhabditis elegans, the evolution of nematode parasitism and the generation of a novel feeding trait in Pristionchus pacificus. These examples reveal a conserved and co-opted role of an endocrine signaling module involving the steroid hormone dafachronic acid. We will discuss how hormone signaling might facilitate life-history and morphological evolution.     

Evolution of vulva development in the Cephalobina (Nematoda)

Ventral cord and vulva development are analyzed in a large sample of nematode species of the suborder Cephalobina. We find a specific range of evolutionary variations at distinct developmental steps. (1) Unlike Caenorhabditis elegans and relatives, the vulva is formed from the four precursor cells P(5-8).p or, exceptionally, from P(6, 7).p only. (2) The vulval competence group is restricted to these four cells or is larger. (3) The fates of more anterior and posterior Pn.p cells vary between closely related species (mostly cell death versus epidermal fate). (4) The mechanism of vulval cell fate patterning varies within a single genus, even between strains of the same species. (5) We describe the first example of a vulval cell lineage that is asymmetric between the anterior and the posterior sides of the vulva. For a selection of the investigated taxa, phylogenetic trees were constructed in order to map vulval characters and infer evolutionary polarities. We can conclude that in this group, death of the Pn.p cells probably constitutes a derived character state compared to a syncytial fate. Rhabditophanes sp. and Strongyloides ratti are placed as sister taxa, probably sharing an exclusive common ancestor in which the number of precursor cells forming the vulva was reduced from four to two.     

An inversion in the wiring of an intercellular signal: evolution of Wnt signaling in the nematode vulva

Signal transduction pathways are largely conserved throughout the animal kingdom. The repertoire of pathways is limited and each pathway is used in different intercellular signaling events during the development of a given animal. For example, Wnt signaling is recruited, sometimes redundantly with other molecular pathways, in four cell specification events during Caenorhabditis elegans vulva development, including the activation of vulval differentiation. Strikingly,a recent study finds that Wnts act to repress vulval differentiation in the nematode Pristionchus pacificus,1 demonstrating evolutionary flexibility in the use of intercellular signaling pathways.     

Regulation and flexibility of genomic imprinting during seed development

Genomic imprinting results in monoallelic gene expression in a parent-of-origin-dependent manner. It is achieved by the differential epigenetic marking of parental alleles. Over the past decade, studies in the model systems Arabidopsis thaliana and maize (Zea mays) have shown a strong correlation between silent or active states with epigenetic marks, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, but the nature of the primary imprint has not been clearly established for all imprinted genes. Phenotypes and expression patterns of imprinted genes have fueled the perception that genomic imprinting is specific to the endosperm, a seed tissue that does not contribute to the next generation. However, several lines of evidence suggest a potential role for imprinting in the embryo, raising questions as to how imprints are erased and reset from one generation to the next. Imprinting regulation in flowering plants shows striking similarities, but also some important differences, compared with the mechanisms of imprinting described in mammals. For example, some imprinted genes are involved in seed growth and viability in plants, which is similar in mammals, where imprinted gene regulation is essential for embryonic development. However, it seems to be more flexible in plants, as imprinting requirements can be bypassed to allow the development of clonal offspring in apomicts.     

Inherent flexibility in a potent inhibitor of blood coagulation, recombinant nematode anticoagulant protein c2.

Nematode anticoagulant proteins (NAPs) from the hematophagous nematode Ancylostoma caninum inhibit blood coagulation with picomolar inhibition constants, and have been targeted as novel pharmaceutical agents. NAP5 and NAP6 inhibit factor Xa by binding to its active site, whereas NAPc2 binds to factor Xa at a different, as yet unidentified, site and the resultant binary complex inhibits the tissue factor-factor VIIa complex. We have undertaken NMR studies of NAPc2, including the calculation of a solution structure, and found that the protein is folded, with five disulfide bonds, but is extremely flexible, especially in the acidic loop. The Halpha secondary shifts and 3JHNHalpha coupling constants indicate the presence of some beta structure and a short helix, but the intervening loops are highly conformationally heterogeneous. Heteronuclear NOE measurements showed the presence of large amplitude motions on a subnanosecond timescale at the N-terminus and C-terminus and in the substrate-binding loop, indicating that the conformational heterogeneity observed in the NMR structures is due to flexibility of the polypeptide chain in these regions. Flexibility may well be an important factor in the physiological function of NAPc2, because it must interact with other proteins in the inhibition of blood coagulation. We suggest that this inhibitor is likely to become structured on binding to factor Xa, because the inhibition of the tissue factor-factor VIIa complex requires both NAPc2 and factor Xa.