Winter diets of wolfCanis lupus and lynxLynx lynx in Estonia and Latvia

Winter diets of wolfCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 and lynxLynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758 in Latvia and Estonia were investigated in 1997–2000 based on stomach contents of hunted animals and scats. Ungulates appeared to be the staple food for both predators. Lynx diet to a high extent consisted of cervids (Estonia 52% frequency of prey, Latvia 88%), roe deer dominating. Mountain hareLepus timidus made up from 9% (Latvia) to 31% (Estonia) of the lynx diet, and red foxVulpes vulpes 7% in Estonian sample. Wolf diet was more diverse; besides cervids (44% in Latvia, 63% in Estonia) it included wild boar Sus scrofa (32% in Latvia, 17% in Estonia), carrion, small rodents, and other food items. Proportion of empty stomachs was high both in wolves (37%) and lynxes (35%) in Latvia. Range of stomach content weights varied from zero to more than 4 kg in wolves and almost 1.5 kg in lynx. Pianka’s indices of food niche overlapped significantly between species and countries (0.85–0.99).     

Feeding ecology of wolvesCanis lupus returning to Germany

Following several years of occasional occurrence, several wolvesCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 have established a resident population in northeastern Saxony (Eastern Germany). From 2001 to 2003, we collected and analysed 192 scats ofC. lupus. Results of our study are expressed as the frequency of occurrence of prey species and the percentage of biomass consumed using coefficients of digestibility as well as two variants of an equation for prey mass per collectable scat. Diet composition of the wolves was restricted to a few food items, mostly wild ungulates. These remains were found in 97% of the scats, representing 99% of the biomass consumed by the wolves. Roe deerCapreolus capreolus was the most frequent and most important prey, constituting nearly of one half the biomass. Red deerCervus elaphus was recorded in one-third of the samples, followed by wild boarSus scrofa, mouflonOvis am mon musimon and brown hareLepus europaeus. Compared with game occurrence, roe deer was clearly preferred over the other species. A difference between winter and summer diets was mainly due to the high occurrence of young wild boar in summer. The general diet pattern of the wolf in Saxony corresponds with that found in the naturally occurring populations in Europe.     

Inter-pack,seasonal and annual variation in prey consumed by wolves in Pollino National Park,southern Italy

Although understanding of food habits of wolves in human-modified landscapes is critical to inform conservation and conflict management, no such studies have ever been conducted in the southern Apennines, Italy, where wolves long coexisted with humans. By means of scat analysis (n?=?1743) and log-linear modelling, we investigated diet composition in five wolf packs in the relatively simple prey system of the Pollino National Park (PNP), southern Italy (1999?2003). Overall, although wild boar was the most frequently consumed prey (mean frequency ± SD, 63.1?±?23%), both wild boar and cattle predominated the diet in terms of biomass (45.3?±?24 and 48.1?±?21%, respectively). We revealed, however, a zonal (i.e. area, pack) followed by annual and seasonal effects on the wolf diet. Cattle consumption by wolf packs in the northern portion of PNP (Pollino subrange) was highest, especially during summer when cattle predominated the diet in terms of biomass (68.3?±?20%). Instead, wild boar consumption was highest in the Orsomarso packs (biomass, 62.1?±?13%), with increasing trends throughout the study period but no relevant seasonal variation. Wild boar piglets and cattle calves were the most frequently consumed age classes, revealing their availability year-round and higher profitability compared to other prey. Cattle consumption by wolves reflected prevailing husbandry techniques (free-ranging herds with unattended births) and determined a permanent state of conflict, often spurring retaliatory killing of wolves. Compatible cattle husbandry practices, along with the restoration of multi-prey communities, are needed to reduce wolf-livestock conflicts and possibly enhance the ecological role of wolves in human-altered ecosystems.     

Investigations on the radiocaesium contamination of wild boar (Sus scrofa) meat in Rhineland-Palatinate: a stomach content analysis

To substantiate the pathways of radiocaesium contamination in wild boars in parts of Rhineland-Palatinate, we analysed radiocaesium-activityconcentration of 2,433 wild boars shot in an area covering 45,400 ha in the western part of the Palatinate Forest between January 2001 and February 2003. Also, for a fraction of 689 animals shot between May 2002 and February 2003, we collected their stomachs for the examination of content and Cs-activity concentration. Wild boar meat contamination followed a seasonal curve with maximum proportions exceeding accepted levels in the summer (21–26%) and minimum levels in winter (1–9.3%) indicating a higher consumption of a contaminating source during the vegetation period. The autumn decline is obviously attributed to the extensive consumption of low-contaminated beech nuts. An exact analysis of food composition in 18 stomachs with maximum Cs-activity concentrations [345–1,749 Bq/kg (fresh matter: fm)] and 18 with low Cs-activity concentrations (20–199 Bq/kg) was carried out in the summer of 2002. Deer truffles (Elaphomyces granulatus) were found in significantly higher proportions in stomachs with maximum contamination levels than in stomachs with lowcontamination levels. This fungus was found in the Palatinate Forest, by a trained dog, in average densities of 1 truffel/20 m² primarily in spruce stands, showing an average Cs-concentration of 6,030 Bq/kg (fm). On the basis of our findings we stress the hypothesis that deer truffles function as a main Cs-source for the wild boar in Rhineland-Palatinate.     

Food habits of wolves in central Italy based on stomach and intestine analyses

We investigated wolfCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 food habits in central Italy by examining stomach and/or intestine contents of 59 individuals. Road accident and illegal kills were main causes of the wolves’ death. Ungulates represented the bulk of the diet (55% in frequency), and among them wild boar was the most important prey, followed by domestic Caprinae. Food items of domestic origin accounted for about 1/3 of all the diet. Diet composition did not vary between stomachs and intestines in spite of the higher degree of digestion of the intestines’ contents. The frequent detection of numerous larvae of Diptera and/or necrophagous Coleoptera, let suppose the consumption of already dead animals, and suggests a general underestimate of the wolf’s scavenging behaviour in previous studies based on scat analyses.     

Wolf predation and snow cover as mortality factors in the ungulate community of the Bialowieża National Park,Poland

Summary Wolf-ungulate interactions were studied in the pristine deciduous and mixed forests of the Bialowiea National Park in 1985–1989. The study period included two severe and two mild winters. The community of ungulates inhabiting Bialowiea National Park consisted of red deer Cervus elaphus, 55% of all ungulates; wild boar Sus scrofa, 42%; and roe deer Capreolus capreolus, moose Alces alces, and European bison Bison bonasus, about 1% each. The average size of red deer groups increased from 2.7 (SD 2.35) in spring and summer to 6.9 (SD 6.84) in autumn and winter. In winter the group size of red deer was positively correlated with the depth of snow cover and negatively correlated with the mean daily temperature. Average group size of wild boar did not change significantly between seasons; it was 6.8 (SD 5.16) in spring and summer and 5.7 (SD 4.67) in autumn and winter. Analysis of 144 wolf scats showed that wolves preyed selectively on red deer. In October–April, Cervidae (mostly red deer) constituted 91% of biomass consumed by wolves, while wild boar made up only 8%. In May–September deer formed 77% of prey biomass, and the share of wild boar increased to 22%. In all seasons of the year wolves selected juveniles from deer and boar populations: 61% of red deer and 94% of wild boar of determined age recovered from wolves' scats were young <1 year old. Analysis of 117 carcasses of ungulates found in Bialowiea National Park showed that predation was the predominant mortality factor for red deer (40 killed, 10 dead from causes other than predation) and roe deer (4 killed, none dead). Wild boar suffered most from severe winter conditions (8 killed, 56 dead). The percentage of ungulates that had died from undernutrition and starvation in the total mortality was proportional to the severity of winter.     

Winter diet composition of the golden jackal (Canis aureus L., 1758) in Serbia

The winter diet composition of golden jackals was determined by analysing the stomach contents of 248 specimens collected between December and February 2005–2009 at six localities in Serbia. The average weight of stomach contents was 189.9 ± 137.3 g. At all localities, livestock carcasses were the primary food category (frequency 56.1%, biomass 77.7%). The secondary food category consisted of small mammals taken as live prey (frequency 20.7%, biomass 5.2%). Other food categories were present less frequently (roe deer, wild boar, hare, and birds), and rarely (plant material, dogs, carnivores, lizards, and inedible inorganic material). No statistically significant differences were found in diet between jackals from different localities. The only difference was found between yearlings and adults with regard to the consumed biomass (%B). The analysis of the winter diet of golden jackals in Serbia indicates that the species has opportunistic feeding habits consisting primarily of easily accessible food sources.     

Wolf (Canis lupus) feeding habits during the first eight years of its occurrence in Germany

Due to the fact that the feeding habits of large carnivores are the main contentious point when they start resettling regions they were absent from for several decades, the diet composition of the wolves in Germany was analysed from the beginning of this process. Wolves in Germany primarily feed on wild ungulates, which make up more than 96% of their diet. The dominating prey species is the roe deer (55.3%), followed by red deer (20.8%) and wild boar (17.7%). The second important food category are the leporids (2.9% of Biomass), whereas livestock makes up only 0.6% of all biomass consumed. Wolves clearly prefer hunting on juvenile to adult red deer; roe deer are not selected after their age. We found seasonal differences in the diet composition with a higher amount of wild boar in spring and winter, when a high amount of juveniles and weakened animals, respectively, are available. In the first years of the study the percentage of red deer was much higher, and the percentage of roe deer therefore was lower than the following years. The amount of wild boar in the wolf diet fluctuated most in the first three years. Diet composition remained constant during the last five years. Wolves needed less than two generations for adapting to the new conditions in the cultivated landscape of eastern Germany.     

Diet of wolves <Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis> returning to Hungary

At the end of the nineteenth century, the wolf Canis lupus was extinct in Hungary and in recent decades has returned to the northern highland area of the country. The diet of wolves living in groups in Aggteleki National Park was investigated using scat analysis (n = 81 scats) and prey remains (n = 31 carcasses). Throughout the year wolves (average, minimum two wolves per year) consumed mostly wild-living ungulates (mean percent of biomass consumed, B% 97.2%; relative frequency of occurrence, %O 74.0%). The wild boar Sus scrofa was the most common prey item found in wolf scat (%B 35.6%) and is also the most commonly occurring ungulate in the study areas. The second most commonly occurring prey item in wolf scat was red deer Cervus elaphus (B% 32.8%). Conversely, prey remain analyses revealed wild boar as the second most commonly utilised prey species (%O 16.1%) after red deer (%O 67.7%). The roe deer Capreolus capreolus that occurs at lower population densities was the third most commonly utilised prey species. The importance of low population density mouflon Ovis aries, livestock and other food types was low. The results are similar to those found in the northern part of the Carpathian Mountains.     

Responses of wolf feeding habits after adverse climatic events in central-western Belarus

Many studies have investigated the ecology of wolf populations of Eurasia, showing that although wolves are mostly opportunistic in seeking meso-large enough mammalian prey, they can also be selective, depending on local availability of prey and their population biomass. Yet prey preferences of the wolf have been poorly evaluated in situations of complex predator/prey systems because such ecological situations are extremely rare in Europe. In particular, the role of beaver is poorly known due to the extreme decline in its range and population over the last few centuries.We conducted a 15-year study (1999–2014) of wolf Canis lupus diet in the Naliboki forest of central-western Belarus to determine the dietary responses of the wolf population in a context of a rich prey supply (beaver 650 inds/100 km², elk 47 inds/100 km², red deer 98 inds/100 km, roe deer 398 inds/100 km², wild boar 234 inds/100 km²). The bison, although present, is not preyed on. We compared the seasonal and annual diet variations of both wolf adults and pups, by scat analysis and hair identification. In winter 2012–2013, the winter was quite harsh with a long period of snow, which severely affected the roe deer and wild boar populations. Five severe summer droughts also occurred (1999, 2001, 2002, 2004 and 2013), greatly decreasing the water level in rivers and canals. We took advantage of these stressful events to evaluate the diet responses of the wolves.In “normal” years, we identified 11 food categories, essentially beaver and medium-sized ungulates (66%), and large ungulates to a lesser extent (9% in summer, 20% in winter). The adults were found to selectively supply pups with beaver, probably because of its easy transportability. Beaver consumption also increased during summer droughts when water levels were very low. After the harsh winter of 2012–2013, which was followed by a sharp decline in medium-sized prey, we observed a shift in the winter diet breadth of the wolves towards greater consumption of both large wild ungulates and small carnivores. We concluded that:1. Beaver is a functional element in wolf ecology, as a primary food for adults and pups;2. A large range of available prey species is important to maintaining a viable wolf population in cases of extreme climatic events.     

Prey preference of large carnivores in Anamalai Tiger Reserve,India

Prey preferences of large carnivores (tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus) and dhole (Cuon alpinus)) in the tropical forest of Anamalai Tiger Reserve (ATR) were evaluated. This was the first study in ATR to estimate the density of prey and the food habits of these large carnivores. The 958-km² intensive study area was found to have a high mammalian prey density (72.1 animals per square kilometre) with wild boar (20.61 animals per square kilometre) and chital (20.54 animals per square kilometre) being the most common species, followed by nilgiri tahr (13.6 animals per square kilometre). When the density figures were multiplied by the average weight of each prey species, a high biomass density of 14,204 kg km⁻² was obtained for the intensive study area. Scat analysis and incidental kill observation were used to determine the dietary composition of these predators. During the study from the period of March 2001 to April 2004, 1,145 tiger scats, 595 leopard scats and 2,074 dhole scats were collected and analysed. Kill data were based on direct observation of 66 tiger kills and 39 leopard kills. Sambar, with a density of 6.54 kg km⁻² was the preferred prey for these carnivores. Sambar constitutes 35% of the overall diet of tiger, whereas it constitutes 17% and 25% in leopard and dhole diets, respectively. Chital was utilized less than sambar in the range of about 7%, 11% and 15% by tiger, leopard and dhole, respectively. Predator diet was estimated more accurately by scat analysis, which reveals 30% of smaller prey species in leopard’s diet, which was not observed by kill data. This study reveals that ATR harbours high prey density, and these large carnivores seem mostly dependent on the wild prey rather than on domestic livestock as in some other areas in the subcontinent. These factors make ATR a potential area for long-term conservation of these endangered carnivores.     

Seasonal variations of the digestive tract of the Eurasian beaver <Emphasis Type="Italic">Castor fiber</Emphasis>

Forage availability for wild rodents varies with season. In turn, the composition of food can affect morphometric parameters of the digestive tract. This study was performed in Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) whose population was close to extinction in most Eurasian countries, but has now increased. Due to the previous low number of studies, information about the effect of forage availability on the digestive tract morphology has previously been lacking. This study was performed using beavers captured from the natural environment during three seasons of different forage availability: winter, summer and autumn. It was found that the diet of the beaver varied during the year; in winter it was dominated by woody material consisting of willow shoots, whereas in summer the diet was primarily herbs, grass and leaves. Season also affected the mass of digested contents of the digestive tract. The digestive content increased in the caecum and colon in winter and autumn, when poor-quality food dominated the beaver’s diet. The results indicated that the digestive tract parameters of beavers varied based on the composition of available forage.     

Feeding habits of the otter and the American mink in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (Poland) compared to other Eurasian populations

Diets of the otter Lutra lutra and the American mink Mustela vison were studied by scat analysis on five woodland rivers and streams in eastern Poland. Fish constituted 51% of food biomass consumed by otters in spring‐summer and 40% in autumn‐winter, with common fish (perch Perca fluviatilis, pike Esox lucius, and roach Rutilus rutilus) being captured most frequently by the otters. Amphibians (mainly Rana temporaria, which also dominated in the living community) made up 34% of otters’ food biomass in spring‐summer and 58% in autumn‐winter. American mink relied on three prey groups: fish (40% in spring‐summer, and 10% in autumn‐winter), frogs (32% and 51%, respectively), and small mammals (21% and 36%). Out of available Micromammalia, mink strongly selected the root vole Microtus oeconomus. The cold season diet of both otter and mink depended on river size. On small rivers with forested valleys, otters and mink fed nearly exclusively on amphibians (72–90% of food biomass). With size of a river increasing and riverside habitat becoming more open (sedge and reed marshes instead of forests), otters shifted to catching predominantly fish (up to 76% in diet) and mink to preying on small mammals (up to 65% in diet).
Review of literature on otter and mink in Eurasia showed that their diets did not change with latitude (as indicators of climate severity and duration of water freezing) but they depended on habitats. In otter diet, the mean share of fish declined from 94% (SE 1.7) on sea shores, to 71% (SE 2.9) on lakes and fish ponds, to 64% (SE 2.8) on rivers and streams. The roles of amphibians and crustaceans increased in the same gradient (from 0 to 15%, and from 3 to 7%, respectively). On inland waters, the abundance of crayfish was the essential factor differentiating otters’ diet composition. In Eurasia, the staple food types of American mink on rivers and streams were fish (on average, 27% in diet, SE 3.9), mammals (30%, SE 5.0), and amphibians (17%, SE 4.8), whereas on lakes and ponds mink fed predominantly on birds (on average, 33% in diet, SE 10.1) and fish (28%, SE 9.5). In the Palaearctic region, over a wide gradient of habitats, otters appeared strongly specialised on prey taken from water, whereas American mink was a typical generalist capable of utilising several prey groups originating from both water and land.     

Foraging and diet of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in relation to variable food resources in Biatowieza National Park, Poland

Feeding ecology of red fox Vulpes vulpes was studied by scat analysis and snow-tracking m primeval temperate forest and adjacent meadows during four years (1985/86-1988/89) Winters varied from mild to unusually severe Main food resources for foxes were rodents of open meadows and river valleys (root vole Microtus oeconomus ). forest rodents (bank vole Clethrionomys glareolus and yellow-necked mouse Apodemus flavicollis ), hare Lepus europaetis and carcasses of wild boar Sus scrofa and red deer Cervus elaphus either killed by wolves and lynx or that had died from inanition Composition of fox diet m four cold seasons (autumn-winter) was compared to the abundance of main food resources Prolonged, sharp decline of Microtus was followed by only a twofold decrease of its share in fox diet Foxes continued to prey on declining Microlus The changes in the proportions of forest rodents and hare in fox diet clearly followed the fluctuations in numbers of these two prey Carcasses were alternative, buffer food to foxes and were taken considerably when Microlus and other prey were in low numbers or poorly accessible The depth of snow was the most important factor restricting foxes access to rodents Snow-tracking revealed that foxes dwelling in the forest widely used adjacent open areas In open meadows foxes mainly hunted for rodents, while in the forest the most significant foraging activity was scavenging Seasonal analysis of fox diet revealed that consumption of Microlus by foxes was stable throughout the year (37-47% of biomass consumed) Bank vole significantly contributed to fox diet in autumn, and hare in summer only Scavenging was most pronounced in winter and spring when carcasses made up 30% of biomass taken     

黑龙江省完达山东部林区东北虎猎物生物量

研究一个地区猎物种群生物量能否满足捕食动物种群数量的需求,这对于了解濒危大型食肉动物是否受到来自于食物缺乏的威胁和制定相应的保护措施极其重要。为了掌握黑龙江省完达山东部林区东北虎食物需求与猎物生物量之间的关系,于2008年冬季至2009早春积雪覆盖期采用随机布设样线,通过收集有蹄类动物在雪地上留下的足迹等活动的方法,在东方红林业局和迎春林业局管辖境内3 692.06 km²的区域布设大样方48个,并在大样方里共布设样线240条开展有蹄类动物种群数量调查,确定东北虎猎物生物量。调查结果表明:研究地区野猪(成体502 606只,亚成体209 210只)、马鹿(成体331 357只,亚成体67 72只)和狍子(成体810 815只,亚成体202 203只)的生物量分别为74 767.50 87 825.00 kg、79 744.50 85 984.50 kg 和 31 337.00 31 525.50 kg,3种有蹄类动物生物量共计1 85 849.00 205 335.00 kg。研究地区猎物总生物量为209 619.89 231 598.24 kg。如果按8%的生物提供给东北虎,3种主要猎物生物量可满足5.22 6.92只东北虎个体的食物需求,研究地区猎物总生物量则可满足5.89 7.81只东北虎个体的食物需求。此外,对足迹遇见率与抽样强度、抽样强度与足迹遇见率的均值标准误差之间关系的分析表明,在完达山东部林区布设120条样线(抽样距离600 km)、150条样线(抽样距离750 km)和115条样线(抽样距离675 km)能满足野猪、马鹿、狍子种群数量调查准确性的最低需求。     

Variation in the feeding pattern of red foxes in relation to changes in anthropogenic resource availability in a rural habitat of western Poland

The feeding pattern of red foxes Vulpes vulpes, i.e., the composition of their diet and dietary responses to fluctuations in the abundance of common voles Microtus arvalis were compared in the periods before and after the limitation of anthropogenic food availability in a rural area in western Poland. During the winter seasons of 1996/97–2014/15, the diet of the foxes was estimated by analysing the stomach contents of individuals shot from November to March and the index of vole abundance was obtained by counting their burrow entrances. The major component of the fox diet over the entire study period was anthropogenic food (mainly, the remains of farm animals) that showed both the highest average proportion in the stomach content volume (53.4%) and the highest average frequency of occurrence in the stomachs (62.7%), whereas small mammals were the second important component (27.5% and 54.2%, respectively). The frequency of anthropogenic food decreased and the frequencies of wild ungulate carrion and other wild vertebrates (mainly birds) increased after the limitation of anthropogenic resources. The observed fluctuations in the index of vole abundance resulted in positive changes in the small mammal frequency and negative changes in the anthropogenic food frequency, but the course of these relationships did not significantly differ between the two periods. The frequency of hares in fox stomachs did not change significantly between these periods, but recently the occurrence of hares in the diet of foxes increased with vole abundance. This study indicated that the reduction of anthropogenic food availability for carnivorous mammals may result in their switching to other prey species and potentially may have a negative influence on the demography of such prey species.     

The diet of the striped hyena in Nepal's lowland regions

Striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena) are extremely rare in Nepal, and only a few people have studied them in their natural forest and grassland habitat. Their rarity is due to anthropogenic pressures such as hunting, habitat modification, being killed on roads, and depletion of their natural prey. Here, we studied the feeding ecology of hyenas in lowland, Nepal. We employed an opportunistic sampling to collect hyena scats in a range of habitats and the line transect sampling to identify the prey of the hyena in the study site. We collected 68 hyena scats between 2015 and 2018. Most of the hyena scat (39.7%) was found in the Churia Hill forest followed by riverbed (26.4%), mixed forest (14.7%), Sal (Shorea robusta)‐dominated forest (11.7%), and grassland area (7.3%). We found eleven mammalian prey species, plants, and some unidentified items in the hyena scats. The frequency of occurrence and relative biomass of the medium‐sized wild boar (Sus scrofa) were higher than other smaller prey species such as hare (Lepus nigricollis) and rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Similarly, the proportion of large prey species such as nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in the hyena diet was lower compared with wild boar, hares, and rhesus macaques indicating medium‐sized wild boar is the most preferred prey species. Livestock contributed 17.3% of the total dietary biomass. Domesticated species such as goats, sheep, cows, and even dogs were found in the diet of hyenas. Predation of livestock by hyenas could cause conflict, especially if this ongoing issue continues in the future. Rather, more conservation effort is required in lowland areas of Nepal to protect the hyenas' natural prey species, particularly in wildlife habitats to reduce the lure of taking domestic livestock. Similarly, conservation education at the local level and active involvement of government authorities in the conservation of this species might be helpful to mitigate human–hyena conflict in the human‐dominated landscape.     

Seasonal diet and prey selection of black‐backed jackals on a small‐livestock farm in South Africa

The extent to which black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) selectively consume domestic sheep (Ovis aries) compared to wild prey is unknown. Using faecal analysis and prey surveys, we determined the seasonal diet and prey selection of jackals on a small‐livestock farm in South Africa. Sheep comprised 25–48% of the biomass consumed by jackals across seasons, and consumption peaked during the lambing seasons, indicating sheep often were the main food resource for jackals. Another main food resource was wild ungulates <50 kg, primarily springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), which comprised 8–47% of the biomass consumed. Other important food items were mammals 1–3 kg (4–16%), which included hares (Lepus spp.) and springhares (Pedetes capensis), and small rodents (10–14%). Compared to the biomass available, jackals selectively consumed mammals 1–3 kg over sheep across all seasons, whereas wild ungulates <50 kg were selectively consumed over sheep in most seasons. Our results showed that jackals selectively consumed different food items throughout the year and that wild prey were consistently selected over sheep.     

Long‐term changes in the feeding of Pollachius virens on the Scotian Shelf: responses to a dynamic ecosystem

The diet and feeding ecology of pollock Pollachius virens from the Scotian Shelf and Bay of Fundy in the north‐west Atlantic changed over the last few decades, which was associated with decreases in euphausiid abundance. Stomach contents data for 2078 pollock collected during the 1958–1967 period and for 1230 pollock collected during the 1996–2002 period indicated that pollock diet contained fewer euphausiids and feeding activity decreased. During the early period, euphausiids were present in 65% of the pollock stomachs that contained food and only 9% of these stomachs in the recent period. The decrease of euphausiids was not wholly offset by an increase in piscivory, since there was little increase in the frequency of fish prey in the diet or in the fullness index for this prey type. Empty stomachs were significantly more common in the recent period during both the winter and summer. The decreased occurrence of euphausiids in stomach samples coincided with a significantly decreased abundance of this prey, suggesting that the near‐absence of euphausiids in recently collected pollock stomachs reflected prey abundance. Concurrent with changes in diet and feeding intensity, the condition or 'plumpness' of pollock significantly declined from the early to the late sampling periods.     

Diet of Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx, in the boreal forest of southeastern Norway: the relative importance of livestock and hares at low roe deer density

The year-round food habits of lynx were studied using radio-telemetry and snow-tracking in the boreal forest of southeastern Norway. The main objectives of the study were to clarify the importance of domestic sheep and small prey species in the diet of lynx in an area with a very low density of roe deer. During the period 1995–1999, we found 193 scats and 358 kills made by lynx. Our results indicate that roe deer were the most common prey species (contributing to 83 and 34% of the biomass consumed in winter and summer, respectively), although a wide range of other species were also found, including mountain hares, tetranoids, red foxes, domestic sheep, wild reindeer, and even moose. Most of the diet was obtained by predation, although we did document several cases of scavenging. Roe deer were more important in the diet in winter than in summer, perhaps because they were easier to locate in winter as they clustered around feeding sites. In summer, domestic sheep and small prey increased in importance. Despite the very low density of roe deer in this study area, lynx seemed to still specialise on them, although domestic sheep did constitute a significant amount to their diet, especially for males and yearlings. However, the contribution of sheep to summer diet was far from that expected if their relative density was considered.