Coexistence and population genetic structure of the whooper swan <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cygnus cygnus</Emphasis> and mute swan <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cygnus olor</Emphasis> in Lithuania and Latvia

Two closely related swan species, the mute swan Cygnus olor and the whooper swan Cygnus cygnus, were formerly allopatric throughout their breeding ranges, but during the last decades a sympatric distribution has become characteristic of these species in the Baltic Sea region. The whooper swan has gradually replaced the mute swan in many suitable habitats in Lithuania and Latvia. Marked differences in the genetic population structure of both species may partially explain the dominance of the whooper swan, as genetic population divergence can be a major factor affecting inter-specific competition. A homogenous genetic population structure was defined for mute swans breeding in Lithuania, Latvia, Poland and Belarus. Breeding mute swans in this region are mostly of naturalised origin. A diverse population genetic structure characterizes whooper swans breeding in Lithuania and Latvia.     

Contributions to the knowledge of the Noctuoidea (Lepidoptera) of the Republic of Belarus

The paper contains a detailed overview of the history of Noctuoidea study in Belarus since the middle of the XIX century. Critical analysis of the Noctuoidea species list in the Catalogue of Lepidoptera of Belarus (Merzheyevskaya et al., 1976) is made. A list of species missing from this catalogue but recorded in preceding publications is compiled, supplemented with records of the species found in Belarus after publication of the catalogue. Data on the examined material for 19 species new to the fauna of Belarus are given.     

Centennial Scots pine chronologies for western,central and eastern Lithuania

Although two centennial Scots pine chronologies for the dating of timber in Lithuania were constructed in the 2000 s, the Baltic countries still lack a network of regional chronologies. To fill this gap, we constructed three Scots pine chronologies for western, central and eastern Lithuania. Here we present chronologies covering the fifteen to the twentieth centuries. Our analysis revealed a strong teleconnection of the compiled chronologies with Scots pine chronologies constructed in Poland, Latvia, Estonia, and Belarus. The established link with Belarus chronologies and the fact that some of the timber in Lithuanian buildings could be of Belarus origin is important in the long-distance timber trade during the last 500 years. Dendroclimatological analysis has shown that constructed tree-ring chronologies are sensitive to air temperatures in February and March. Therefore, the constructed chronologies have a potential for climate reconstructions and dendroprovenancing.     

Geographical variation in macrohabitat use and preferences of the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina

Geographical variation in wildlife–habitat relationships has seldom been studied. We explored macrohabitat use and geographically distinct responses to habitat availability in the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina near the centre (Lithuania) and on the edge (Estonia) of its European distribution range, and in different zones within Estonia. Land cover types and distances to landscape elements, as well as landscape diversity, were measured around 198 Eagle nests and random forest points. Out of six macrohabitat characteristics, two (landscape diversity, area of optimal foraging habitat) showed no geographical variation in use, or preferences by the Eagle. Whereas variation in the use of suboptimal foraging habitats and forests could be attributed to regional differences in their availability, there were geographically distinct preferences for distances between nests and landscape elements. The species avoided anthropogenic edges in Lithuania but tended even to prefer their proximity in Estonia; Eagles selected nest-sites near remote waterbodies throughout Estonia but there was no such preference in Lithuania. The results did not support the hypothesis that latitudinal or range centre-to-periphery gradients existed in habitat relationships of the species; the main factor behind the geographical variation was probably land-use history. In general, the diversity of geographical effects indicated that extrapolating local habitat relationships to other areas may give erroneous results, and large-scale conservation planning regarding species' habitat may be ineffective.     

Subfossil oaks from riverine sediments of the Seda River in Latvia: The first results of dendrochronological and radiocarbon analysis

The article presents a dendrochronological investigation of subfossil oaks from the riverine sediments of the Seda River in the Lake Burtnieki Undulating Plain, northern Latvia. Thirty-nine oak trunks were investigated for our study. Cross-dating of samples resulted in six floating chronologies spanning 141–636 years. The longest chronology was absolutely dated to AD 652–1287 against regional oak chronologies from Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus and central European Russia. ¹⁴C dating revealed that oaks grew on the site from the last century of the third millennium cal BC to the first half of the second millennium cal AD. We assessed the depositional anomalies from two best-replicated chronologies. The germination of oaks occurred during climate warming, and dying-off phases were triggered by climate cooling and increased precipitation throughout Europe. Our results give new insights into the forest history in northern Latvia and provide a potential to construct absolute-dated millennial oak chronologies in the Baltic countries.     

Genetic structure of the Eurasian lynx population in north-eastern Poland and the Baltic states

We analyzed the genotypes of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) from three populations in the westernmost part of the species main range. One population was situated at the distribution edge (NE Poland) and the two other (Latvia and Estonia) were located within the main, contiguous range of the species. The aim was to determine if the genetic composition varied among these populations and if there was evidence of isolation among them. Based on microsatellite allele frequencies, we found the allelic richness in Polish lynx to be lower than that in lynx from Latvia and Estonia. We also found significant differentiation among the lynx populations, with the NE Poland population forming a distinct genetic group relative to the two other populations (R _ST = 0.15 and 0.22, P < 0.0001). We suggest that genetic differentiation among lynx populations is the result of habitat insularisation that limits gene flow. This finding emphasizes the necessity to consider the lynx genetic differentiation in conservation planning of this species in Poland.     

Forest snail faunas from Transylvania (Romania) and their relationship to the faunas of Central and Northern Europe

Forty‐three forest sites in seven sampling areas in mountainous parts of Transylvania were sampled to obtain inventories of their snail faunas, and to make comparisons between these and the faunas of similar sites further north along the Carpathian chain. Sampling areas ran from close to the Ukrainian border in the north to Retezat in the south‐west. Altogether, 83 species were found, as well as between 19 and 40 species at individual sites. Sites within the same sampling area had more species in common than in among‐area comparisons, although differences between areas did not relate to the distance between them. Such differences appear to be related more to ecological factors than to geography. Faunas of all areas were very similar to those recorded from the Polish and Ukrainian Carpathians; distance from these northern faunas had little effect on similarity. More broadly, the fauna of these forests shows a much greater affinity to those of countries to the north than to those of countries to the south. Despite the survival of forests through the last glacial period of the Pleistocene, and the greater proximity to potential Mediterranean refugia, these faunas appear to be mainly a subset of those found further north. They represent a rather small proportion of the known Romanian fauna, in which there are many endemics restricted to other habitats. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 104 , 471–479.     

Geographical separation of diploid and triploid cytotypes of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allium scorodoprasum</Emphasis> in Lithuania

The aim of this study was to determine the geographical and ecological distribution of Allium scorodoprasum cytotypes in Lithuania. 46 populations were studied: environmental variables were recorded and somatic chromosome numbers of 797 individuals from all populations were assessed. Diploids were found in 13 populations in the northern part of the study area, while triploids occurred in 33 populations from the western part of Lithuania. A. scorodoprasum frequently occurred in river valleys, particularly in the rarely flooded high level floodplains or on lower terraces. Only one population was recorded in Alno-Ulmion forest and three on the Glechometalia hederaceae forest edges, while 42 populations occurred in mesophilous or semidry Arrhenatheretalia elatioris, Mesobromion erecti and Trifolio-Geranietea sanguinei grasslands. No distinct differences in relative frequencies of diploid and triploid cytotypes in different plant communities were found whereas the soil chemical composition between the habitats of both cytotypes differed statistically. These differences however were indicative of the geographical separation of habitats rather than ecological differentiation between the two cytotypes. The results suggest that there were at least two separate roads of colonization of diploid and triploid A. scorodoprasum into Lithuania.     

Land-use history as a factor of the contemporary state of a plant cover: An example from Southeastern Belarus)

The legacy effect of land-use history on the contemporary state of a plant cover in the southeastern part of Belarus is studied. Forest ecosystems developed on the former arable, meadow, and other nonforest lands are characterized by a decreased share of forest species, increased share of synanthropic species, high level of flora adventization, low occurrence of late successional species, and retarded succession.     

Recolonization of a burned Mediterranean area by terrestrial gastropods

Wildfires are common natural perturbations in Mediterranean ecosystems. Their frequency and extent have changed in recent decades to become one of the main ecological problems for wildlife. The response of fauna to wildfires depends greatly on the life histories and biological traits of each species. Terrestrial gastropods have limited mobility, and their presence is restricted by the vegetal and abiotic characteristics of habitats. For this reason, they are expected to have a low ability to recolonize burned areas. We have explored their survivorship and recolonization patterns according to the cryptic-refuge and fire-edge models in a Mediterranean protected area affected by a large fire in August 2003. The low number of species recorded at burned sites demonstrates the negative effects of a wildfire on the richness of gastropod assemblages 4 years after the perturbation. However, the total number of living individuals did not vary between burned and unburned areas, suggesting an after-fire shift in dominant species from woodland to open-space species. Forest species with wide European distributions dominated in unburned sites, whereas open-space species and xerophytic Mediterranean species were present at burned sites. These differences were evident even at the burned sites closest to the unburned forest, suggesting low recolonization rates from the fire edge. By contrast, the abundance of xerophilous species as well as isolated records of mesophilous species in the burned areas suggests the survival of small populations and further recuperation after fire following the cryptic-refuge model.     

Eliminating rabies in Estonia

The compulsory vaccination of pets, the recommended vaccination of farm animals in grazing areas and the extermination of stray animals did not succeed in eliminating rabies in Estonia because the virus was maintained in two main wildlife reservoirs, foxes and raccoon dogs. These two species became a priority target therefore in order to control rabies. Supported by the European Community, successive oral vaccination (OV) campaigns were conducted twice a year using Rabigen® SAG2 baits, beginning in autumn 2005 in North Estonia. They were then extended to the whole territory from spring 2006. Following the vaccination campaigns, the incidence of rabies cases dramatically decreased, with 266 cases in 2005, 114 in 2006, four in 2007 and three in 2008. Since March 2008, no rabies cases have been detected in Estonia other than three cases reported in summer 2009 and one case in January 2011, all in areas close to the South-Eastern border with Russia. The bait uptake was satisfactory, with tetracycline positivity rates ranging from 85% to 93% in foxes and from 82% to 88% in raccoon dogs. Immunisation rates evaluated by ELISA ranged from 34% to 55% in foxes and from 38% to 55% in raccoon dogs. The rabies situation in Estonia was compared to that of the other two Baltic States, Latvia and Lithuania. Despite regular OV campaigns conducted throughout their territory since 2006, and an improvement in the epidemiological situation, rabies has still not been eradicated in these countries. An analysis of the number of baits distributed and the funding allocated by the European Commission showed that the strategy for rabies control is more cost-effective in Estonia than in Latvia and Lithuania.     

Diversity patterns of the terrestrial snail fauna of Nyungwe Forest National Park (Rwanda), a Pleistocene refugium in the heart of Africa

We investigated the land snail fauna of Nyungwe Forest National Park in south‐western Rwanda. Fifty plots at altitudes between 1718 and 2573 m were studied. In total, 3461 specimens were collected and were assigned to 102 land snail species. With respect to land snail species, Nyungwe Forest is the richest forest known in Africa. A comparison with other forests in the northern Albertine Rift indicates that land snail species richness in this region is significantly correlated with distance from Pleistocene forest refugia. The high beta diversity in Nyungwe is the result of a high species turnover between sites, which has biogeographical and ecological origins. Nyungwe Forest is situated on the Congo–Nile divide where species of different geographical origin may meet. Moreover, Nyungwe Forest offers a high diversity of habitats because it extends across a wide range of altitudinal zones. Species richness decreased with increasing altitude. It was also correlated with the presence of bare rocks that offer additional microhabitats and shelter. Although the occurrences of different land snail species in Nyungwe Forest were significantly clustered, only a minority of the species could be assigned to a group of species with similar occurrences. The majority of the species respond individualistically to environmental variables. The significant nestedness of the occurrences of the land snail species in Nyungwe was mainly correlated with altitude. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114 , 363–375.     

Long‐term colonization ecology of forest‐dwelling species in a fragmented rural landscape – dispersal versus establishment

Species colonization in a new habitat patch is an efficiency indicator of biodiversity conservation. Colonization is a two‐step process of dispersal and establishment, characterized by the compatibility of plant traits with landscape structure and habitat conditions. Therefore, ecological trait profiling of specialist species is initially required to estimate the relative importance of colonization filters. Old planted parks best satisfy the criteria of a newly created and structurally matured habitat for forest‐dwelling plant species. We sampled species in 230 ancient deciduous forests (source habitat), 74 closed‐canopy manor parks (target habitats), 151 linear wooded habitats (landscape corridors), and 97 open habitats (isolating matrix) in Estonia. We defined two species groups of interest: forest (107 species) and corridor specialists (53 species). An extra group of open habitat specialists was extracted for trait scaling. Differing from expectations, forest specialists have high plasticity in reproduction mechanisms: smaller seeds, larger dispersules, complementary selfing ability, and diversity of dispersal vectors. Forest specialists are shorter, less nutrient‐demanding and mycorrhizal‐dependent, stress‐tolerant disturbance‐sensitive competitors, while corridor specialists are large‐seeded disturbance‐tolerant competitors. About 40% of species from local species pools have immigrated into parks. The historic forest area, establishment‐related traits, and stand quality enhance the colonization of forest specialists. The openness of landscape and mowing in the park facilitate corridor specialists. Species traits in parks vary between a forest and corridor specialist, except for earlier flowering and larger propagules. Forest species are not dispersal limited, but they continue to be limited by habitat properties even in the long term. Therefore, the shady parts of historic parks should be appreciated as important forest biodiversity‐enhancing landscape structures. The habitat quality of secondary stands can be improved by nurturing a heterogeneous shrub and tree layer, and modest herb layer management.     

The grasshoppers of Costa Rica: a survey of the parameters influencing their conservation and survival

Seventy-five per cent of the acridomorph fauna of Costa Rica is confined to the wet forest environment. This habitat also has a disproportionately large proportion of species which are of restricted distribution within the country or are endemic to Costa Rica or are flightless. The grasshoppers of dry forest, grassland and swamp habitats have in general the reverse properties: they include relatively few species and most of these are capable of flight and are widely distributed both within and outside of Costa Rica. The major factor influencing the long-term survival (or, conversely, the extinction) of the major part of the grasshopper fauna of Costa Rica is likely to be the preservation (or destruction) of the wet forest habitat.     

Ground beetles of the Ukraine (Coleoptera, Carabidae)

A review of the ground beetles of the Ukrainian fauna is given. Almost 750 species from 117 genera of Carabidae are known to occur in the Ukraine. Approximately 450 species of ground beetles are registered in the Carpathian region. No less than 300 species of ground beetles are found in the forest zone. Approximately 400 species of Carabidae present in the forest-steppe zone are relatively similar in species composition to those in the forest territories. Some 450 species of Carabidae are inhabitants of the steppe zone. Representatives of many other regions of heterogeneous biotopes such as forest, semi desert, intrazonal, etc. can be found in the steppe areas. The fauna of Carabidae (ca. 100 species) of the lowlands of southern Ukraine (sandy biotopes), situated mostly in the Kherson region, is very peculiar. The fauna of the Crimean mountains contains about 300 species. Conservation measures for the Carabidae are discussed.     

Comparison of the post-Chernobyl 137Cs contamination of mushrooms from eastern Europe, Sweden, and North America.

A comparison was made of 134Cs and 137Cs contamination in fungi from eastern Europe and eastern North America. Mean activities of 25 Ukrainian, 6 Swedish, and 10 North American collections were 4,660, 9,750, and 205 Bq/kg (dry weight), respectively. Additional measurements were made on samples from the Moscow, southern Belarus, and Yugoslavia/Bulgaria regions. Activity values were found to vary by several orders of magnitude within all geographic areas, even for the same mushroom species. Significantly higher specific activities were observed in mycorrhizal species than in saprophytic and parasitic fungi. Unfortunately, many of the European mycorrhizal species considered as prized edibles contained unacceptably high levels of 137Cs (> 1,000 Bq/kg [dry weight]) and should be used sparingly as food. By contrast, no mushrooms collected in Ontario or northern Michigan exceeded 1,000 Bq of 137Cs per kg (dry weight). The excessive 137Cs contamination was evident in mushrooms from areas that had substantial fallout from the 1986 accident in reactor 4 at the Chernobyl nuclear power station. However, observations suggest that about 20% of the 137Cs in eastern Europe (Moscow area, Belarus, and Ukraine) is of non-Chernobyl origin.     

On the after‐use and restoration of abandoned extracted peatlands in the Baltic countries

In the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), mires directly affected by peat extraction cover almost 90,000 ha. Of these, over 26,200 ha have already been extracted and are abandoned. The main aim of this article is to give an overview of the extent of extracted peatlands in the Baltics, the legislative background around the land‐use options, and the directions of after‐use of peatlands since the middle of the 20th century. We also critically review results from restoration of abandoned extracted peatlands and assess whether they are on a trajectory toward reinitiation of paludification and functioning mire ecosystems. Almost all currently existing abandoned extracted peatlands in the Baltics were abandoned during and shortly after the Soviet period (1940–1991) without any restoration measures. The rest of the extracted areas were mostly afforested, converted into agricultural lands, berry plantations, or water bodies. The after‐use was mostly experimental, lacking systematic, proper assessment of outcome, cost and benefits, and side effects. The data are scarce but it could be estimated that only <10% (Estonia and Lithuania) and <20% (Latvia) of the total area of abandoned extracted peatlands were used for some purposes after peat extraction. Recently, several trials aimed at restoring the mire vegetation and ecosystem functions have been started in abandoned extracted peatlands in all three countries. In the coming years, the restoration of extracted peatlands in the Baltics will start on much bigger areas within different projects and initiatives cofinanced by the European Union.     

Ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) diversity and community composition along sharp urban forest edges

The effects of forest edge on ant species richness and community composition were examined within an urbanized area of northeast Ohio. The ground-dwelling ant fauna was inventoried in three deciduous forest fragments that have resulted from human disturbance. We surveyed ants via leaf-litter extraction along 150 m transects positioned perpendicular to the forest edge. We collected 4,670 individuals from 14 genera and 29 species. Samples closest to the forest edge contained more species and accumulated species at a higher rate than did samples located in the forest interior. Our rarefied and expected richness estimates revealed a decline of species richness from edge to forest interior. The higher ant richness at the forest edge was due mostly to the presence of species characteristic of the neighboring open habitats. Although most of the typical forest ant species were represented equally at the edge and at the forest interior, a few responded to the presence of edges with changes in their relative abundance and frequency of occurrence. Forest edges had a higher proportion of opportunistic species and a lower proportion of cryptic ants, whereas interior locations exhibited a more even distribution among ant functional groups. In addition, we documented a community composition shift between the edge and the forest interior. Consistent with previous findings, we suggest that the edge effects are most pronounced within 25 m of the forest edge, which may have implications for the overall conservation of forest-dwelling fauna.     

Survey of the terrestrial and freshwater molluscan fauna of the Pilliga forest area in northern inland New South Wales,Australia

The Pilliga forest in northern inland New South Wales, Australia, is one of the largest surviving remnants of native forest on the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range. The Pilliga landscape is a challenging environment for molluscs, dominated by dry sclerophyll forest and with limited and largely ephemeral aquatic habitats. A field survey of the area in 2006–2012 identified a surprisingly rich and relatively intact aquatic native molluscan fauna with five species of bivalves in three families and nine species of freshwater gastropods (four families), including some rare species and range extensions. The native land snail fauna comprised 18 species (six families), including an unusually rich pupillid fauna with nine species. Some range extensions are recorded and some species are narrow-range endemics. The distributions of many aquatic and terrestrial species were correlated with geology or soil type. Introduced molluscs were predominantly found in anthropogenic habitats and include two freshwater gastropods (two families) and nine terrestrial snails and slugs (eight families). This study provides insight into the original molluscan fauna of the western slopes prior to landscape-scale agricultural development and provides a benchmark for future reference.     

A new classification of the forests of the Muniellos Biological Reserve in Northwest Spain

By means of a cluster analysis, we classified 135 relevés of the forests of the Muniellos Reserve into 8 groups and the species in these relevés into 28 groups. The concentration analysis applied allows to study the relationship between relevé group and species group. The forest types in Muniellos Reserve are: mixed riverside forest, mixed forest with hazel, semideciduous pyrenean oak forest, xerophilous and mesophilous sessile oak forest, beech forest and open and thick birch forest. These forest types are characterized floristically, structurally and ecologically. The pattern of distribution of forest types in the Muniellos Reserve is also discussed; in the siliceous areas of the Orocantabric province this pattern is widespread, but differes to some extent from the accepted pattern.