Target cell deformability determines the type of phagocytic mechanism used by Entamoeba histolytica-like,Laredo strain

Summary— Morphological study of red blood cell phagocytosis by Entamoeba histolytica-like (Laredo strain) has shown that this amoeba is able to ingest by two distinct mechanisms. One is classical phagocytosis and the other is by suction or microphagocytosis. Rigidification of red blood cells by treatment with glutaraldehyde shows that there is a correlation between the deformability of the ingested cell and the type of phagocytosis observed. Indeed, as the red cells become more rigid, less microphagocytosis is observed. To demonstrate that this shift in phagocytic mechanisms is not induced by the modification of a surface receptor by the glutaraldehyde treatment, the amoebas were fed with erythrocyte ghosts. Since these have lost most of their hemoglobin content, they are less rigid than the intact erythrocytes. The ghosts, even after glutaraldehyde treatment, are always ingested by microphagocytosis. These results have therefore led us to conclude that the type of erythrocyte phagocytosis used by E histolytica-like (Laredo strain) is determined by the deformability of the targetted red blood cells.     

Evidence for two asymmetric conformational states in the human erythrocyte sugar-transport system.

6-O-methyl-, 6-O-propyl-, 6-O-pentyl- and 6-O-benzyl-D-galactose, and 6-O-methyl-, 6-O-propyl- and 6-O-pentyl-D-glucose inhibit the glucose-transport system of the human erythrocyte when added to the external medium. Penetration of 6-O-methyl-D-galactose is inhibited by D-glucose, suggesting that it is transported by the glucose-transport system, but the longer-chain 6-O-alkyl-D-galactoses penetrate by a slower D-glucose-insensitive route at rates proportional to their olive oil/water partition coefficients. 6-O-n-Propyl-D-glucose and 6-O-n-propyl-D-galactose do not significantly inhibit L-sorbose entry or D-glucose exit when present only on the inside of the cells whereas propyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside, which also penetrates the membrane slowly by a glucose-insensitive route, only inhibits L-sorbose entry or D-glucose exit when present inside the cells, and not when on the outside. The 6-O-alkyl-D-galactoses, like the other nontransported C-4 and C-6 derivatives, maltose and 4,6-O-ethylidene-D-glucose, protect against fluorodinitrobenzene inactivation, whereas propyl beta-D-glucopyranoside stimulates the inactivation. Of the transported sugars tested, those modified at C-1, C-2 and C-3 enhance fluorodinitrobenzene inactivation, where those modified at C-4 and C-6 do not, but are inert or protect against inactivation. An asymmetric mechanism is proposed with two conformational states in which the sugar binds to the transport system so that C-4 and C-6 are in contact with the solvent on the outside and C-1 is in contact with the solvent on the inside of the cell. It is suggested that fluorodinitrobenzene reacts with the form of the transport system that binds sugars at the inner side of the membrane. An Appendix describes the theoretical basis of the experimental methods used for the determination of kinetic constants for non-permeating inhibitors.     

Evidence for two mechanisms by which tumor necrosis factor kills cells

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) can inhibit the differentiation of preadipocytes to adipocytes and will revert differentiated adipocytes to the preadipocyte state. TNF is not toxic to either adipocytes or preadipocytes when used alone but is highly toxic to these cells when used in conjunction with cycloheximide, yielding virtually 100% killing within 4-6 h of treatment. A cell line (TA1 R-6) was isolated which is resistant to the combined toxic effects of TNF and cycloheximide. This cell line is stable and, unlike the parental cell line, does not morphologically differentiate to adipocytes or express adipocyte-specific mRNAs. It has a more transformed appearance and growth pattern and, while resistant to the toxic effects of TNF and cycloheximide in a 6-h assay, has become sensitive to cytotoxicity induced by TNF used alone in a 3-day assay. The adipocyte differentiation-inducing agents, dexamethasone and indomethacin, block the cytotoxicity induced by TNF alone in the TA1 R-6 line but do not block the rapid cytotoxicity of TNF and cycloheximide in the parental line. These results provide both genetic and pharmacologic evidence that there are at least two distinct or overlapping pathways by which TNF mediates its effects.     

Molecular mechanisms of invasion by Entamoeba histolytica

Amebiasis is the third leading cause of death due to parasitic disease. Adherence to and contact-dependent killing of host cells requires the galactose-inhibitable lectin, a heterodimeric glycoprotein composed of heavy and light subunits. The cysteine-rich extracellular domain of the heavy subunits has identity with β₁ integrins, complement receptor CD59, and complement components C8 and C9; the light subunit sequence is unlike any other sequenced protein. Monoclonal antibodies to the cysteine-rich domain identify pathogenic-specific domains, have adherence-inhibitory and -enhancing properties, block contact-dependent cytotoxicity, and abrogate complement C5b-9 resistance. The purified lectin has galactose-binding activity and confers C5b-9 resistance to susceptible amebae. The accumulated evidence points to the same cell surface galactose-inhibitable lectin as a mediator of two activities required for invasion: adherence and complement resistance.     

Evidence for negative cooperativity in human erythrocyte sugar transport

1. When d-glucose exchange influx is measure over a wide range of concentrations then two affinity constants (2.27 and 26.0 mM) are evident. This is consistent with a transport model (the allosteric pore model) in which there is negative cooperativity between subunits of the transport protein. 2. The equations for the allosteric pore model interacting with two substrates (or a substrate and an inhibitor) have been derived and have been used to analyse data from exchange inhibition and for mixed infinite-trans uptake experiments. 3. The exchange inhibition of tracer 3-O-methyl-d-glucose, d-xylose and d-fructose uptake by d-glucose also shows evidence for negative cooperativity and for two inhibition constants which are approximately equal to the d-glucose equilibrium exchange affinity constants. 4. The uptake of d-glucose into infinite-transd-glucose or 3-O-methyl-d-glucose gives K_m values of 2.6 and 2.33 mM, respectively. The uptake of 3-O-methyl-d-glucose into infinite-transd-glucose or 3-O-methyl-d-glucose gives K_m values of 6.0 and 4.6 mM, respectively. V values are slightly higher when the internal sugar is 3-O-methyl-d-glucose. 5. In cells that are treated with fluorodinitrobenzene the apparent K_i value for d-glucose inhibition of tracer d-fructose uptake is lowered. It is proposed that this is due to a partially selective effect of FDNB on the internal subunit interface stability constant (the internal pore gate).     

Evidence suggesting direct oxidation of human erythrocyte membrane sulfhydryls by copper

Results are presented which suggest that cupric ion can directly oxidize the sulfhydryls of human erythrocyte membrane proteins leading to the formation of disulfide links. When packed ghosts were incubated in cupric sulfate (0.3 to 0.7 mM) at pH 8, and electrophoresed on sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gels in the absence of dithiothreitol bands 1, 2 (spectrin); 4.2 and 5 (actin) diminished in intensity concomitant with the appearance of high molecular weight material. Band 3 moved to its dimeric position on the gel. Evidence that these crosslinks result from formation of new disulfide links due to direct copper binding includes: (a) reversal of crosslinking upon addition of dithiothreitol; (b) blockage of the effect by N-ethylmaleimide, EDTA and mercuric chloride. The effect of copper was observed under N₂, suggesting that it is not related to air oxidation. Furthermore, the crosslinking effect does not require high copper concentrations if the ghost concentration is low. The possible implication of these results with regard to copper induced hemolytic anemias is briefly discussed.     

Equilibrium ligand binding to the human erythrocyte sugar transporter. Evidence for two sugar-binding sites per carrier

Equilibrium [3H]cytochalasin B binding to class I sites of human red cell membranes (the sugar transporter) was examined in the presence and absence of intracellular or extracellular sugars known to interact with the transport system. D-Glucose, a transported sugar, is without effect on cytochalasin B binding when present in the extracellular medium but is an effective inhibitor of binding when present within the cell. Ethylidene glucose and maltose (reactive but nontransported sugars) inhibit cytochalasin B (CCB) binding when present either outside or inside the red cell. Inhibition by intracellular sugar (Si) is of the simple, linear competitive type. Inhibition by extracellular sugars (So) is more complex; the Kd(app) for cytochalasin B binding increases in a saturable fashion with [So]. These observations are compared with the predictions of the one-site, alternating conformer model and the two-site model for substrate binding to the sugar transporter, X. The experimental results are inconsistent with the one-site model but are explained by a two-site model in which the ternary complexes of So . X . Si or So . X . CCBi exist and where the binding sites for So and Si display negative cooperativity when occupied by nontransported substrate and little or no cooperativity when occupied by the transported species, D-glucose.     

Participation of the contractile system in endocytosis demonstrated in vivo by video-enhancement in heat-pretreated amoebae

Summary The heat-pretreated amoebae (hyalospheres) are well suited cell models to study several manifestations of endocytosis: invagination of initial funnels, formation of pinocytotic channels, their activity and disintegration, production of microand macroendosomes directly from the surface membrane. All these phenomena are rhythmically reproduced (with periods ranging from 9 to 27 s) at the same active spots on the cell surface and accompanied by pulsation of the adjacent peripheral cytoplasmic layers. Successive portions of the contractile cortical network are serially detached from the plasma membrane and retracted inwards (on average 1 detachment per 15 s). They are suggested to be responsible for the traction component of endocytotic movements, i.e., for pulling the initial invagination funnels, elongation of channels, and inward transport of macroendosomes which are embedded in them. On the other hand, retraction of the cortical network squeezes the hyaloplasm outwards and thus the pressure component of endocytosic is produced. This results in cell surface expansion around the orifice of endocytotic channels or formation of macroendosomes by constriction at the mouth of large surface invaginations. Moreover, the retracting cortical network produces various radial transhyaline strands which seem to play a, not fully understood, role in membrane invagination and inward transport of microendosomes, and to accompany cytoplasmic pulsation around channels. The contractile network lining the walls of the channels may be detected in vivo, when some old channels are destroyed and their membrane dissociates from the cytoskeletal sleeve. The central role of the rhythmic detachment of the contractile network from the plasma membrane is common to the locomotory and endocytotic movements.     

Distinct mechanisms of agonist-induced endocytosis for human chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR4

Desensitization of the chemokine receptors, a large class of G protein-coupled receptors, is mediated in part by agonist-driven receptor endocytosis. However, the exact pathways have not been fully defined. Here we demonstrate that the rate of ligand-induced endocytosis of CCR5 in leukocytes and expression systems is significantly slower than that of CXCR4 and requires prolonged agonist treatment, suggesting that these two receptors use distinct mechanisms. We show that the C-terminal domain of CCR5 is the determinant of its slow endocytosis phenotype. When the C-tail of CXCR4 was exchanged for that of CCR5, the resulting CXCR4-CCR5 (X4-R5) chimera displayed a CCR5-like trafficking phenotype. We found that the palmitoylated cysteine residues in this domain anchor CCR5 to plasma membrane rafts. CXCR4 and a C-terminally truncated CCR5 mutant (CCR5-KRFX) lacking these cysteines are not raft associated and are endocytosed by a clathrin-dependent pathway. Genetic inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis demonstrated that a significant fraction of ligand-occupied CCR5 trafficked by clathrin-independent routes into caveolin-containing vesicular structures. Thus, the palmitoylated C-tail of CCR5 is the major determinant of its raft association and endocytic itineraries, differentiating it from CXCR4 and other chemokine receptors. This novel feature of CCR5 may modulate its signaling potential and could explain its preferential use by HIV for person-to-person transmission of disease.     

Evidence for the involvement of (Cu-ATP)2- in the inhibition of human erythrocyte (Ca2+ + Mg2+)-ATPase by copper

The effects of copper on the activity of erythrocyte (Ca2+ + Mg2+)-ATPase have been tested on membranes stripped of endogenous calmodulin or recombined with purified calmodulin. The interactions of copper with Ca2+, calmodulin and (Mg-ATP)2- were determined by kinetic studies. The most striking result is the potent competitive inhibition exerted by (Cu-ATP)2- against (Mg-ATP)2- (Ki = 2.8 microM), while free copper gives no characteristic inhibition. Our results also demonstrate that copper does not compete with calcium either on the enzyme or on calmodulin. The fixation of calmodulin on the enzyme is not altered in the presence of copper as shown by the fact that the dissociation constant remains unaffected. It may be speculated that (Cu-ATP)2- is the active form of copper, which could plausibly be at the origin of some of the pathological features of erythrocytes observed in conditions associated with excess copper.     

In situ cross-linking of human erythrocyte band 3 by bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate. Evidence for ligand modulation of two alternate quaternary forms: covalent band 3 dimers and noncovalent tetramers formed by the association of two covalent dimers

Treatment of intact human erythrocytes with bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate converted band 3 to two species with lower electrophoretic mobility in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). The presence of the noncovalent anion transport inhibitor, 4,4'-dinitrostilbene-2,2'-disulfonate, promoted the lowest mobility form, while a closely related analogue, 4,4'-diisothiocyano-2,2'-stilbenedisulfonate, did not. Ferguson analysis of the electrophoretic behavior of the two slowly migrating bands strongly suggested that they represented dimers and tetramers of band 3. Increasing the temperature of the SDS solution to greater than 60 degrees C quantitatively converted the tetrameric species to the dimeric form. We conclude that band 3 can be intermonomerically cross-linked by bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate as covalent dimers within two alternate quaternary forms in a manner modulated by the ligand occupying the intramonomeric stilbenedisulfonate site. In one form, band 3 covalent dimers are noncovalently associated as a SDS-resistant tetramer, while in the other form, covalent dimers are not so associated. There is no obvious relationship between ligand stereochemistry and the resulting quaternary form, suggesting that the two forms reflect alternate allosterically modulated porter quaternary structures. The significance of these two quaternary states to the transport or the ankyrin binding functions of band 3 is unknown.