Evidence of a distinct lipid fraction in historical parchments: a potential role in degradation?

Parchment, a biologically based material obtained from the processed hides of animals such as cattle and sheep, has been used for millennia as a writing medium. Although numerous studies have concentrated on the structure and degradation of collagen within parchment, little attention has been paid to noncollagenous components, such as lipids. In this study, we present the results of biochemical and structural analyses of historical and newly manufactured parchment to examine the potential role that lipid plays in parchment stability. The lipid fraction extracted from the parchments displayed different fatty acid compositions between historical and reference materials. Gas chromatography, small-angle X-ray scattering, and solid-state NMR were used to identify and investigate the lipid fraction from parchment samples and to study its contribution to collagen structure and degradation. We hypothesize that the origin of this lipid fraction is either intrinsic, attributable to incomplete fat removal in the manufacturing process, or extrinsic, attributable to microbiological attack on the proteinaceous component of parchments. Furthermore, we consider that the possible formation of protein-lipid complexes in parchment over the course of oxidative degradation may be mediated by reactive oxygen species formed by lipid peroxidation.     

Diopatra cuprea worm burrow parchment: a cautionary tale of infaunal surface reactivity

Many infaunal marine invertebrates produce mucus excretions that play an important role in metal binding, authigenic mineralization and burrow stabilization. To date, only a handful of studies have characterized the functional groups that control the surface reactivity of burrow linings and backfills. This makes it difficult to place estimates on the overall impact that bioturbation has on metal cycling in tidal flats, the inner shelf, estuaries and other shallow marine environments. Here, we examined the parchment linings of Diopatra cuprea burrows from the Ogeechee River estuary near Savannah, Georgia, USA. Acid–base titrations coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy demonstrate that the parchment is essentially composed of hydroxyl (R-OH) groups, yielding total ligand densities of only 0.017 mmol/g. To place this value into context, it is orders of magnitude less than previously reported mucopolysaccharides for other marine worms, indicating that D. cuprea is essentially unreactive in the estuarine waters from which it was collected. This was corroborated by minimal Cd²⁺ adsorption to, and limited silicification of, pre-rinsed parchment. The lack of silica adsorption was surprising given that the parchment was generally coated with an abundance of quartz grains when extracted from the sediment. This suggests that perhaps the physical, rather than chemical, characteristics of the parchment material were responsible for this association. Indeed, scanning electron microscope images show that the parchment is fibrous and envelopes quartz grains, implying that detritus may get trapped by the parchment mesh. It appears that unlike many other infaunal mucopolysaccharide-rich linings that might be produced to provide reactive surfaces to which dissolved metal cations can adsorb for the organism's nutritional benefit, the parchment of D. cuprea may instead function to protect the animal from stresses such as predation or high-energy disturbances.     

Impact of delay in processing on mold development,ochratoxin-A and cup quality in arabica and robusta coffee

Delay between harvesting of coffee berries and onset of processing are common in most of the coffee-producing countries worldwide. Delay in processing is considered to be a negative operation in coffee production with respect to quality and safety. The aim of this study was to reconfirm the impact of delay in processing on ochratoxin A contamination in coffee and subsequent coffee quality. Delay in processing was found to favor higher mold incidence in cherry as compared to parchment coffee of both arabica and robusta. The incidence of Aspergillus ochraceus in cherry coffee was double compared to the rate of parchment coffee. No definite correlation was found between ochratoxin A contamination and delay in processing in cherry and parchment. Delay in processing increased the drying rate in cherry preparation as compared to parchment. Among the coffee types, delay in processing reduced the drying time in robusta when compared to arabica coffee. In cherry, at least 1 day was reduced in arabica, while in robusta cherry the drying days reduced by 5 days. In parchment coffee, processing delay was found to increase drying days by at least one in both arabica and robusta. Delay in processing had a negative effect on cup quality in both coffee types and processing methods. The present study confirms that delays between harvesting the coffee cherries and onset of processing increases the risk of ochratoxigenic mold and ochratoxin A contamination in coffee, together with poor cup quality.     

Solid-state NMR studies of collagen-based parchments and gelatin

Historical collagen-based parchments have been studied by solid-state NMR. In addition, new parchment (produced according to traditional methods) and gelatin from bovine skin were also studied. Wideline 1H and MAS 13C measurements were carried out directly on intact parchments. A simple approach is proposed for evaluation of the extent of parchment degradation based on the linewidth changes in the 13C CPMAS spectra relative to new parchment and gelatin. Structural (bound) water content was estimated from wideline 1H NMR lineshape and relaxation time measurements. It was found that the relative water content in parchments correlates linearly with 13C MAS linewidths. Its decrease on parchment degradation indicates that structural water molecules are of primary importance in stabilizing higher order collagen structures. Backbone and side chain dynamics of collagen in parchments were compared to those of gelatin based on the 13C dipolar-dephased experiments. Carbonyl 13C chemical shift anisotropies were measured to deduce the geometry of the collagen backbone motion. Unlike previous studies, we found that the collagen backbone motion is similar to that found in other proteins and occurs primarily via small-angle librations about internal bond directions.     

Biodeterioration of collagen-based cultural relics: A review

Natural collagen-based cultural relics such as parchment and leather are susceptible to the storage environment, including temperature, relative humidity, pollutants, and microorganisms, resulting in the deterioration of the main components of collagen, keratin, tannins, lipids, oils and tanning regents. Significant changes might occur in the appearance, composition and internal structure, accompanied by the impaired physical properties such as thermal stability, flexibility, and tensile strength. Biodeterioration is one of the main factors affecting the long-term storage of parchment and leather artifacts, particularly in environments with high relative humidity, due to the proliferation and growth of bacteria or fungi. This review focuses on the common microbial communities on the parchment and leather artifacts. The biodeterioration mechanism is discussed, which will shed light onto the future research of collagen-based cultural relics.     

Loss of complexity from larval towards adult nervous systems in Chaetopteridae (Chaetopteriformia,Annelida) unveils evolutionary patterns in Annelida

Organisms Diversity & Evolution - Chaetopteridae — the parchment worms — comprise a group of early branching annelids with a scarcely investigated neuroanatomy and neurogenesis. Due...     

套袋对越冬番茄果实微环境及产量和品质的影响

以‘L402’番茄为试材,研究了不同材质果袋内微环境变化规律及其对果实膨大与品质的影响.结果表明：套袋可改变番茄果实发育的微环境,促进果实发育,使果实提早成熟,增加单果质量.硫酸纸袋内光照、湿度介于塑料袋与无纺布袋之间,除上午温度低于塑料袋外,下午及夜间的温度均较高,其收获时单果质量较对照增加了15.34%.但套袋果实的可溶性固形物、可溶性糖、维生素C含量和糖酸比值均低于对照,说明套袋影响了果实营养品质,降低了果实风味.由于套袋阻隔了果实与农药的直接接触,除无纺布袋内果实毒死蜱含量高于对照外,硫酸纸袋及塑料袋处理的番茄果实毒死蜱残留量及高效氯氰菊酯残留量均显著低于对照.     

Study of a papain activation factor present in the dialysable fraction of soyabean extract

Soyabean extract contains an activator which passes through parchment paper. The increase in the activity of a mixture of urease and papain with increasing amount of papain in the mixture is due to the increase in the non-dialysable fraction of papain.     

Collagen and keratin polypeptide models for assessing the natural and artificial protein decay of organic materials

Among the materials constituting the natural and cultural heritage, organic materials of proteinaceous origin as bone (collagen), parchment and woolen textiles (keratin) are the most susceptible to damage and decay because of their exposure to air pollution, inappropriate values of ambient temperature, humidity and light. Aiming at contributing to the development of a reliable and reproducible immunoassay for the evaluation of collagen and keratin decay, three polypeptide models of these proteins were designed, synthesized and studied. Polypeptide [Pro‐Ser(OBzl)‐Gly]_n incorporates the typical motif Pro‐X‐Gly of collagen; polypeptide [Pro‐Cys(Acm)‐Gly]_n is a model of the C‐terminal domain of type I keratin, corresponding to the repeating unit Pro‐Cys‐X of keratin, while polypeptide Ac‐YRSGGGFGYRSGGGFGYRS‐βAla‐NH₂ encloses the characteristic repeating sequence GGGFGYRS of the N‐terminal part of Type II keratin. These polypeptides may be considered as simplified models that mimic fragments of collagen and keratin resulting from artificial and natural ageing or decay. It is concluded that high recognition of anti‐polypeptide antibodies, produced after immunizations, by the bone, parchment and textile samples is indicative of high deterioration, while high anti‐collagen or anti‐keratin recognition is indicative of low deterioration. Copyright © 2016 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Egg albumin embedding: A procedure compatible with neurological staining techniques

A water-soluble embedding medium for frozen sections of central nervous system and peripheral nerves which will tolerate on-the-slide alcohol dehydration, xylene clearing and synthetic resin mounting can be prepared by dissolving 20 gm of powdered egg albumin in 30 ml of distilled water. Formalin-fixed, thoroughly washed tissue is immersed in the albumin solution for several hours and then embedded in it. For embedding, a two-layered box is constructed with an inner layer of vegetable parchment paper. This is supported by an outer layer of aluminum foil with 6-8 perforations about 0.5 nun in diameter in its bottom. Hardening of the tissue-albumin block is achieved by formalin dialysis through the parchment paper when the box is stood for 24-48 hr in a layer of 25% formalin that wets only the bottom of the box. Frozen sections from such blocks are compatible with Nauta silver impregnations for degenerating axons, Cajal's gold chloride-sublimate for astrocytes and Pen-field's modified silver carbonate for oligodendroglia and microglia. These, as well as Nissl and myelin sheath preparations show minimal shrinkage and distortion.     

Morphology of the slashed pod trait in lentil

Reducing losses from pod shatter is a major goal of most lentil (Lens culinaris) improvement programs, however, genetic variability is limited. Recently, a slashed pod trait was suggested to have potential value for reducing losses from shattering, but little was known about the trait. In this study we determined the anatomical features which were associated with the slashed pod trait. Histological specimens from ‘Brewer’ lentil (normal pods) and from germplasm lines expressing the slashed pod trait were compared to each other and to specimens from normal and reduced pod parchment pea (Pisum sativum) lines. Reduced parchment pea pods had less sclerenchyma tissue and fewer fibers than pea pods with normal parchment, but all lentil pods examined had comparable sclerenchyma tissue with similar quantities of fiber. The slashed pod trait was not the result of reduced sclerenchyma tissue (parchment) as had been previously suggested. Apparently, the slashed pod trait resulted from the stresses which develop between fiber cells within the sclerenchyma layer of the pod wall during pod maturation and drying. The trait had little effect on quality of seeds for human utilization in the environments tested but may have an undesirable effect in other environments. Although seed loss due to shatter appeared to be decreased in pods exhibiting the trait, the uncertainty of expression due to environmental influences makes the trait an unlikely candidate for use in lentil improvement programs.     

Morphological and histological impacts of the laurina mutation on fructification and seed characteristics in Coffea arabica L.

Key message

The comparison between the cultivar Bourbon and its mutant, the Bourbon pointu, of Coffea arabica led to five novel findings on fruit development and three main impacts of the mutation.

Abstract

Coffea arabica ‘Laurina’ (Bourbon pointu) is a natural mutant of Coffea arabica ‘Bourbon’. Relative to the ‘Bourbon’ cultivar, it is characterized by internode dwarfism, a Christmas tree shape, and lower caffeine content. The effects of the laurina mutation on fructification over time, the fruit structure and seed characteristics were studied here. Fruits of ‘Bourbon’ and ‘Bourbon pointu’ were monitored. The trees were grown in the same plot and flowered on the same day. Harvesting was done every 2 weeks from the 6th to the 26th week after flowering. Histological observations were carried out using multiphoton and conventional microscopes. The measurements concerned the fruit, parchment and seed. Five novel findings on fructification development were obtained: (1) a sigmoid model and non-linear regression efficiently described the phenomenon; (2) a precise relationship was defined between the qualitative stages of fructification and quantitative observations, thus revealing key weeks in this process; (3) the parchment had a mesocarpic origin; (4) a meristematic zone was present close to the parchment; and (5) an endocarp with three cell layers was visible in young fruits. Three effects of the laurina mutation were highlighted: (1) fruit growth ended 1 week earlier in ‘Bourbon’, but without difference in fruit length. In contrast, fruits were wider on average in ‘Bourbon’; (2) the parchment of narrow seeds in ‘Bourbon pointu’ was thicker than in other ‘Bourbon pointu’ and ‘Bourbon’ seeds; and (3) the narrow seed frequency in ‘Bourbon pointu’ depended on environmental conditions.     

THE FAILURE OF PHENOL TREATED ESCHERICHIA COLI TO GROW ON MEMBRANE FILTERS

SUMMARY: Counts of Escherichia coli were done on nutrient agar (control), on membrane filters on nutrient agar and on membrane filters on filter paper pads. With untreated bacteria counts were similar under all conditions, though membrane filters on nutrient agar tended to give slightly low counts. Phenol treated bacteria gave much lower counts when membrane filters were used: the mean counts for 3 strains of the test organism with filters on nutrient agar varied from 35–65% of the control, while counts with filters on filter paper pads were somewhat lower, varying from 30–47% of the control. The low counts on membrane filters on filter paper pads were not due to adsorption of phenol by the filters or to a low concentration of nutrients in the growth medium.     

CONTRIBUTION TO THE THEORY OF PERMEABILITY OF MEMBRANES FOR ELECTROLYTES

From experiments on such membranes as apple skin, parchment paper membrane, and a membrane of completely dry collodion, results have been obtained which could be interpreted by the assumption that these membranes are less permeable for anions than for cations. In parchment paper there is only a relative diminution of the mobility of the anions, in the apple skin and in the dry collodion membrane there is practically no permeability for anions at all. The theory is developed which explains how the decrease or complete lack of mobility of anions influences the electromotive effects of the membrane and the diffusibility of electrolytes across a membrane. The results of the theory are compared with the experimental results. In membranes impermeable for anions the permeability for cations gives the same order of cations as for the mobilities in a free aqueous solution. But the differences of the mobilities are enormously magnified, e.g. the mobilities of H^• and Li^•, which are in the proportion of about 1:10 in aqueous solution, are in proportion of about 1:900 in the collodion membrane. The general cause for the retardation of ionic mobility within the membrane may be supposed to be the increased friction of the water envelope dragged along by the ion in the capillary canals of the membrane. The difference of the effect on the cations and on the anions may be attributed to the electric charge of the walls of the canals.     

The Silk Road, Marco Polo, a Bible and its proteome: a detective story

Around the end of XIII century (at the time of young Marco Polo's first trip to China at the court of Khubilai Khan in Khan Baliq) a pocket Bible was delivered by a Franciscan friar to the Mogul Emperor, in the framework of the evangelization program of the Far East. Four centuries later, in 1685, this Bible was rediscovered by the Jesuit Philippe Couplet in the house of a rich Chinese in Nanchin and donated to Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany. This Bible was recently "unearthed" in the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence, wrapped up in a precious yellow silk cloth, in a rather ruined state. After two years of restoration, the Bible will return to China in 2012 for a celebration of its >700years of life and of its remarkable return trip on the Silk Road. On account of the thinness of the parchment (barely 80μm thickness, the size of each foil being 16.5×11cm) it was widely held that the pages were produced from foetal lambskins. On tiny fragments of the margins of a foil, after several unsuccessful attempts at digesting the vellum, we were able to obtain a tryptic peptide mixture, which, upon mass spectrometry analysis, yielded the identity of 8 unique proteins, belonging to the genus Bos taurus, thus confirming the origin of the vellum from calfskins rather than from foetal lambskins. Our results prove that it is possible to obtain reliable protein extraction and IDs from ancient parchment documents.     

Modification in amino acids of dead sea scroll parchments

Fragments of Dead Sea Scroll Parchments were extracted for collagen and subjected to amino acid analysis. In modern parchment samples, 90% or more of the protein could be extracted in hot aqueous solution as collagen. In the ancient specimens, 70% or less was extractable. The hot-solution insoluble material was analyzed for collagen. In the soluble extract, the quantity of tyrosine, histidine, and methionine was reduces. Dityrosine was dected. The need to extend such studies is discussed.     

The Growth of the Coffee Berry

In Kenya the coffee berry stays in the ‘pin-head’stage for approximately 6–8 weeks after flowering. A periodof rapid growth follows which ends when the berry is about 17weeks old. Thereafter, a small loss of fresh weight seems tooccur while the dry weight remains constant for about two weeks.At this stage the beans have attained their final size but drymatter can be as low as 9 per cent. Until the time when ripeningbegins, the fresh weight of the berry increases little whilethe dry weight increases regularly. In this period dry weightis laid down mainly in the beans which attain their final dryweight when the berry is still green. During ripening of theberry (which is in fact ripening of the pulp) the fresh weightof the beans drops slightly due to loss of water. Both freshweight and dry weight of the pulp (including parchment) increaseconsiderably during ripening by approximately 121 per cent.and 106 per cent. respectively.