RNA干扰Ｃyclin D1基因表达对瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞增殖和G1期调控的影响

为研究siRNA干扰瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞cyclin D1基因表达,对瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞的增殖、细胞周期和G1期调控的影响,构建了靶向cyclin D1的siRNA表达质粒.利用LipofecmmineTM2000转染体外培养的瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞,应用荧光定量PCR、RT-PCR检测cyclin D1 mRNA的干扰效果,应用MTT法、流式细胞仪检测细胞增殖和细胞周期的变化,应用免疫组织化学染色检测成纤维细胞中cyclin D1、CDK4、P16、pRb蛋白表达的影响.主要结果如F:a.靶向cyclin D1的特异性siRNA序列可以高效地抑制成纤维细胞cyclin D1基因表达,对照组与实验组在mRNA水平其表达抑制率分别为63.68%和92.83%(P<0.01);b.可以显著抑制瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞的增殖,改变细胞周期分布,G0/G1期细胞比例显著高于各对照组(P<0.05),细胞分裂被阻滞;c.免疫组化染色发现,转染72 h后,过表达的cyclin D1、CDK4和pRb蛋白,在瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞中均出现了不同程度的表达下调,而低表达的P16则呈上调表现.由上述结果可见,构建的靶向cyclin D1的RNAi表达质粒,可有效地抑制瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞cyclin D1基因表达,通过改变Gl期相关周期蛋白的水平,影响G1/S期的进程,显著地抑制成纤维细胞的增殖.     

RNA干扰敲低β-catenin的表达对瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞增殖及凋亡的影响

目的:探讨β-catenin对人瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞(keloid fibroblasts,KFB)增殖和凋亡的影响。方法:分别采用Real-time PCR(RT-PCR)和Western blot检测正常组织和瘢痕疙瘩中β-catenin的mRNA及蛋白表达。将针对人β-catenin基因设计合成的3对特异性小干扰RNA(siRNA)分别转染体外培养的人瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞,通过RT-PCR和Western blot筛选出干扰人瘢痕成纤维细胞β-catenin基因表达的最佳siRNA。通过siRNA沉默β-catenin表达后,采用MTT法检测KFB的增殖情况,流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率。结果:瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞中β-catenin的表达较正常组织明显升高(P0.05)。通过转染β-catenin siRNA降低其表达后,成纤维细胞的增殖能力明显下降(P0.05),凋亡水平显著增高(P0.05)。结论:沉默β-catenin能够显著抑制瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞增殖并促进其凋亡。     

他克莫司抑制外周血单个核细胞培养上清对瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞的作用

目的:研究他克莫司(FK506)抑制外周血单个核细胞(PBMC)培养上清对瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞的作用,探讨FK506在瘢痕疙瘩治疗中可能的的作用和机制.方法:用消化法原代培养人瘢痕疙瘩来源的成纤维细胞,梯度密度离心法分离培养人PBMC.将瘢痕疙瘩来源的成纤维细胞随机分组,给予PBMC培养上清处理,实验组同时给与不同浓度FK506处理.四甲基偶氮唑蓝法(MTT)检测瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞增殖活性,荧光实时定量PCR法检测Ⅰ型胶原表达.结果:单纯给予PBMC培养上清处理后,成纤维细胞的增殖活性与对照组相比明显增高(P＜0.01),同时给予PBMC上清和FK506时发现FK506在20 ng/ml和100 ng/ml时能够抑制PBMC上清的促增殖作用(P＜0.01),荧光实时定量PCR结果显示:单纯给予PBMC培养上清处理后,Ⅰ型胶原的表达与对照组相比明显增高(P＜0.05),给予PBMC上清和FK506后,在FK506浓度为20 ng/ml和100 ng/ml时Ⅰ型胶原表达降低(P＜0.01).结论:FK506能够抑制PBMC培养上清对瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞的作用,因此,FK506可能通过抑制PBMC的作用来达到预防和治疗瘢痕疙瘩的作用.     

异钩藤碱调控ERK/p27^(Kip1)信号通路改善博莱霉素诱导的小鼠肺纤维化CSCD

基于细胞外调节蛋白激酶1/2(ERK1/2)、p27^(Kip1)信号通路探究异钩藤碱(isorhynchophylline,IRN)对博莱霉素(bleomycin,BLM)诱导的小鼠肺纤维化(pulmonary fibrosis,PF)的作用及机制。C57BL/6J小鼠48只,随机正常组、BLM组、BLM+IRN(10、20 mg/kg)两个剂量组,每组12只。气管注射BLM(5000 U/kg)诱导PF小鼠模型,造模后连续灌胃给药21天。HE和Masson染色观察肺组织病理变化及胶原沉积情况。免疫组化检测肺组织α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(alpha-smooth muscle actin,α-SMA)的表达。体外培养小鼠原代肺成纤维细胞,实验设对照组、转化生长因子-β1(transforming growth factor-beta 1,TGF-β1)(10 ng/mL)组和TGF-β1+IRN(5、10、20μmol/L)三个剂量组。EdU掺入法和流式细胞术检测细胞增殖,Transwell观察细胞的迁移能力。RT-qPCR检测肺组织或肺成纤维细胞TGF-β1、collagen I和α-SMA mRNA的表达。Western blot检测肺组织和(或)肺成纤维细胞TGF-β1、collagen I、α-SMA、p-ERK1/2,p27^(Kip1)、CDK2和Cyclin E1的蛋白水平。动物实验结果显示,与BLM组相比,不同剂量IRN均能明显减轻肺组织结构的损伤、降低炎症细胞的浸润和胶原的沉积;此外,IRN不同程度地降低肺组织TGF-β1、collagen I和α-SMA mRNA和蛋白的表达;同时,IRN还抑制了肺组织ERK1/2的磷酸化、上调p27^(Kip1)和下调CDK2和Cyclin E1的蛋白表达。细胞实验结果显示,与TGF-β1组相比,不同剂量IRN能够明显抑制TGF-β1诱导的肺成纤维细胞增殖、显著降低细胞迁移能力;明显降低TGF-β1诱导的collagen I和α-SMA mRNA和蛋白的表达,同时降低ERK1/2的磷酸化水平、上调p27^(Kip1)和下调CDK2和Cyclin E1的蛋白表达。以上结果表明IRN可能通过抑制ERK1/2信号通路、上调p27^(Kip1)的表达而抑制了肺成纤维细胞向肌成纤维细胞的转化,从而减轻了BLM诱导的PF。     

葡萄糖6-磷酸脱氢酶调控细胞周期蛋白E1和细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶2促进细胞增殖及其在肾透明细胞癌中的预后价值

肾透明细胞癌(clear cell renal cell carcinoma,ccRCC)是一种转移率高、预后差的细胞代谢性疾病,对其有效诊疗及预后分子标志物的研究十分重要。葡萄糖6-磷酸脱氢酶(glucose 6-phosphatedehydrogenase, G6PD)在ccRCC中高表达,并提示患者不良预后,其促进ccRCC细胞增殖的分子机制有待进一步揭示。本研究发现,降低G6PD可抑制细胞周期G₁/S期转化并显著抑制ccRCC细胞增殖。G6PD可在细胞水平调控G₁/S期转化及增殖相关因子Cyclin D1,CDK4,CDK6,Cyclin E1和CDK2基因表达。TCGA数据库分析结果表明,ccRCC 中Cyclin D1,Cyclin E1 和 CDK2的mRNA 水平显著升高,而CDK4表达无明显差异,CDK6表达却显著降低。相关性分析结果显示,G6PD与Cyclin D1呈显著负相关(P<0.0001),G6PD与CDK4,CDK6之间无显著相关性(P>0.05),G6PD与Cyclin E1(P<0.0001)以及CDK2(P<0.05)显著正相关。进一步免疫组化检测结果表明,Cyclin E1和 CDK2在ccRCC肿瘤组织中表达显著升高。生存预后分析结果显示,Cyclin D1高表达提示ccRCC患者整体预后更为良好,CDK4和CDK6表达水平在ccRCC患者总生存率预测中无意义;而Cyclin E1和CDK2高表达均可提示ccRCC患者预后不良。进一步细胞水平检测发现,Cyclin E1、CDK2表达降低可显著逆转G6PD促进ccRCC细胞增殖的能力。综上,与增殖相关因子Cyclin D1,CDK4和CDK6相比,G6PD有可能通过促进Cyclin E1和CDK2表达升高而发挥促进 ccRCC肿瘤细胞增殖的作用,并且这3者的异常高表达有望成为ccRCC患者不良预后的独立生存预测因素。     

瘢痕疙瘩中TIEG1的高表达

转化生长因子-β1(TGF-β1/Smads)信号转导通路的持续激活是瘢痕疙瘩形成的重要机制.研究发现这条通路重要的负反馈调节信号分子Smad7表达明显下调,Smad2/3的磷酸化水平和蛋白质量并无明显改变.但是,Smad7下调的机制尚不清楚.采用生物信息学方法对Smad7的启动子进行分析;用RT-PCR和蛋白质印迹分别检测了正常皮肤、正常瘢痕及瘢痕疙瘩组织中的Sp1样转录因子TIEG1mRNA及蛋白质的表达水平;体外培养正常皮肤、正常瘢痕及瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞,检测TIEG1 mRNA及蛋白的表达水平.研究结果显示,Smad7启动子上有Sp1的位点,TIEG1 mRNA及蛋白质水平在瘢痕疙瘩组织及瘢痕疙瘩成纤维细胞中表达明显高于正常瘢痕和正常皮肤(P<0.05).说明瘢痕疙瘩中TIEG1可能是Smad7下调的重要原因,有必要进一步研究TIEG1对Smad7的调控作用机制.     

脂氧素A4对瘢痕成纤维细胞生物学活性的影响及机制研究

最新文献表明,脂氧素A4(lipoxin A4,LXA4)对组织纤维化及相关疾病有防治作用。为了观察脂氧素A4对瘢痕成纤维细胞增殖、凋亡和胶原合成的影响并探讨其抗瘢痕形成的机理,该文首先通过RT-PCR和Western blot法检测瘢痕成纤维细胞是否表达脂氧素受体ALX;然后将不同浓度脂氧素A4加入瘢痕成纤维细胞培养液中分别作用相应时间后,MTT法检测细胞的增殖程度,流式细胞仪检测细胞的凋亡情况,羟脯氨酸测试盒检测细胞培养液中羟脯氨酸含量,ELISA法检测细胞培养上清中TGF-β水平。结果发现,瘢痕成纤维细胞表达ALX,脂氧素A4抑制瘢痕成纤维细胞增殖、羟脯氨酸释放及TGF-β分泌,同时还诱导细胞凋亡。综上所述,脂氧素A4抑制瘢痕成纤维细胞增殖和胶原合成并诱导其凋亡,可能是防治瘢痕形成的重要潜在药物。     

大鼠发育过程中海马细胞周期相关蛋白的表达与分布

目的观察正常SD大鼠发育过程中海马细胞周期相关蛋白表达及分布特点,探讨其与脑老化的关系.方法采用免疫组织化学方法观察不同发育时期(1周,2月,4月,10月,15月)Cyclin D1、CDK4、P16、NeuN表达的规律.结果在各年龄组Cyclin D1、CDK4、P16、NeuN阳性细胞层的厚度随着增龄而逐渐变薄.各阳性细胞的排列逐渐由紧密变得松散,胞体逐渐增大,各阳性细胞逐渐伸出轴突进入分子层.P16随月龄的增长在海马各区染色增强,但P16阳性细胞数目减少.结论 Cyclin D1、CDK4、P16、NeuN在海马发育的各个时期均有表达,老龄大鼠海马内Cyclin D1、CDK4、P16表达的下调提示细胞增殖活性受限,这可能与脑老化有关.     

c-ski对大鼠皮肤成纤维细胞增殖的调节作用及机制

c-ski是成纤维细胞增殖的复杂调节子,它对中胚层来源的皮肤成纤维细胞增殖的作用还不清楚。在观察正常成纤维细胞周期c-ski表达的时相特点的基础上,通过体外转染c-ski,观察它对细胞增殖活性、细胞周期进展以及周期蛋白表达的影响。结果显示：c-ski mRNA表达在加入血清后开始升高,在细胞周期G,期的高峰期达到峰值,S期显著下降,在G2／M期维持在较低的水平：转染的c-ski可以以剂量依赖的方式增加细胞的增殖活性,并且可以逆转Smad3对细胞增殖活性的抑制作用;C-ski使成纤维细胞提前达到G0／G1期的最低点,进入S期：同时细胞G1期周期蛋白cyclinD的表达增加。这些结果表明：C-ski是皮肤成纤维细胞G1期的调节子,通过加快G1期进展促进增殖,抑制Smad3活性,促进cyclinD的表达可能与这一作用的分子机制有关。     

沉默Smad4基因表达抑制猪卵巢颗粒细胞增殖并使细胞G_1期阻滞

Smad4是TGF-β/Smad信号通路的核心下游信号分子.为探明Smad4基因对猪卵巢颗粒细胞增殖及细胞周期的影响,采用RNA干扰技术,设计并合成猪Smad4基因的靶向小分子干扰RNA,由LipofectamineTMRNAiMix介导转染体外培养的猪卵巢颗粒细胞.应用实时荧光定量PCR检测Smad4mRNA的干扰效果,应用MTT法、流式细胞术检测细胞增殖和细胞周期的变化,同时应用荧光定量PCR检测转染前后CyclinD1、CyclinB、CyclinA2、CDK1、CDK2、CDK4等周期相关基因的mRNA表达量的变化.实验结果显示,靶向猪Smad4的特异性siRNA序列对Smad4mRNA表达的抑制率为79.85%(P0.01);沉默Smad4可以显著抑制猪卵巢颗粒细胞增殖,并且改变细胞周期分布,G0/G1期细胞比例显著高于各对照组(P0.05),S期细胞比例显著低于各对照组(P0.05),细胞分裂被阻滞;转染36h后CyclinD1、CDK1的mRNA表达量显著低于对照组,CyclinA2、CDK2、CDK4极显著低于对照组,CyclinB差异不显著.综上所述,Smad4是影响猪卵巢颗粒细胞增殖及细胞周期进程的重要基因之一.     

Lineage specific composition of cyclin D–CDK4/CDK6–p27 complexes reveals distinct functions of CDK4, CDK6 and individual D‐type cyclins in differentiating cells of embryonic origin

Abstract. Objectives: This article is to study the role of G₁/S regulators in differentiation of pluripotent embryonic cells. Materials and methods: We established a P19 embryonal carcinoma cell‐based experimental system, which profits from two similar differentiation protocols producing endodermal or neuroectodermal lineages. The levels, mutual interactions, activities, and localization of G₁/S regulators were analysed with respect to growth and differentiation parameters of the cells. Results and Conclusions: We demonstrate that proliferation parameters of differentiating cells correlate with the activity and structure of cyclin A/E–CDK2 but not of cyclin D–CDK4/6–p27 complexes. In an exponentially growing P19 cell population, the cyclin D1–CDK4 complex is detected, which is replaced by cyclin D2/3–CDK4/6–p27 complex following density arrest. During endodermal differentiation kinase‐inactive cyclin D2/D3–CDK4–p27 complexes are formed. Neural differentiation specifically induces cyclin D1 at the expense of cyclin D3 and results in predominant formation of cyclin D1/D2–CDK4–p27 complexes. Differentiation is accompanied by cytoplasmic accumulation of cyclin Ds and CDK4/6, which in neural cells are associated with neural outgrowths. Most phenomena found here can be reproduced in mouse embryonic stem cells. In summary, our data demonstrate (i) that individual cyclin D isoforms are utilized in cells lineage specifically, (ii) that fundamental difference in the function of CDK4 and CDK6 exists, and (iii) that cyclin D–CDK4/6 complexes function in the cytoplasm of differentiated cells. Our study unravels another level of complexity in G₁/S transition‐regulating machinery in early embryonic cells.     

HMGB1 mediates IFN-γ-induced cell proliferation in MMC cells through regulation of cyclin D1/CDK4/p16 pathway

Previous studies have revealed the elevated serum levels of High-mobility group box-1(HMGB1) and the interferon-γ (IFN-γ)-induced proliferation of renal mesangial cells in patients or experimental animals with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, it is still not elucidated whether HMGB1 involves in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis (LN) and mediates IFN-γ-induced mesangial cell proliferation. Therefore, in the present study we demonstrated HMGB1 mRNA and protein levels were increased in the glomeruli of LN patients and BXSB mice. HMGB1 increased the proliferation index of mouse mesangial cells (MMC) that was accompanied with the up-regulation of cyclin D1, CDK4 and the down-regulation of p16, subsequently promoting the transition from the G0/G1 to S stage. Inhibition of HMGB1 by a specific short hairpin RNA vector prevented cyclin D1/CDK4/p16 up-regulation and attenuated IFN-γ-induced MMC cell proliferation and PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen, PCNA) expression. These findings indicate that HMGB1 mediates IFN-γ-induced cell proliferation in MMC cells through regulation of cyclin D1/CDK4/p16 pathway and promoting the cell cycle transition from G1 to S stage.     

Targeted Disruption of CDK4 Delays Cell Cycle Entry with Enhanced p27Kip1 Activity

The mechanism by which cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) regulates cell cycle progression is not entirely clear. Cyclin D/CDK4 appears to initiate phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (Rb) leading to inactivation of the S-phase-inhibitory action of Rb. However, cyclin D/CDK4 has been postulated to act in a noncatalytic manner to regulate the cyclin E/CDK2-inhibitory activity of p27(Kip1) by sequestration. In this study we investigated the roles of CDK4 in cell cycle regulation by targeted disruption of the mouse CDK4 gene. CDK4(-/-) mice survived embryogenesis and showed growth retardation and reproductive dysfunction associated with hypoplastic seminiferous tubules in the testis and perturbed corpus luteum formation in the ovary. These phenotypes appear to be opposite to those of p27-deficient mice such as gigantism and gonadal hyperplasia. A majority of CDK4(-/-) mice developed diabetes mellitus by 6 weeks, associated with degeneration of pancreatic islets. Fibroblasts from CDK4(-/-) mouse embryos proliferated similarly to wild-type embryonic fibroblasts under conditions that promote continuous growth. However, quiescent CDK4(-/-) fibroblasts exhibited a substantial ( approximately 6-h) delay in S-phase entry after serum stimulation. This cell cycle perturbation by CDK4 disruption was associated with increased binding of p27 to cyclin E/CDK2 and diminished activation of CDK2 accompanied by impaired Rb phosphorylation. Importantly, fibroblasts from CDK4(-/-) p27(-/-) embryos displayed partially restored kinetics of the G(0)-S transition, indicating the significance of the sequestration of p27 by CDK4. These results suggest that at least part of CDK4's participation in the rate-limiting mechanism for the G(0)-S transition consists of controlling p27 activity.     

Varicella-zoster virus infection of human foreskin fibroblast cells results in atypical cyclin expression and cyclin-dependent kinase activity

In its course of human infection, varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infects rarely dividing cells such as dermal fibroblasts, differentiated keratinocytes, mature T cells, and neurons, none of which are actively synthesizing DNA; however, VZV is able to productively infect them and use their machinery to replicate the viral genome. We hypothesized that VZV alters the intracellular environment to favor viral replication by dysregulating cell cycle proteins and kinases. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and cyclins displayed a highly unusual profile in VZV-infected confluent fibroblasts: total amounts of CDK1, CDK2, cyclin B1, cyclin D3, and cyclin A protein increased, and kinase activities of CDK2, CDK4, and cyclin B1 were strongly and simultaneously induced. Cyclins B1 and D3 increased as early as 24 h after infection, concurrent with VZV protein synthesis. Confocal microscopy indicated that cyclin D3 overexpression was limited to areas of IE62 production, whereas cyclin B1 expression was irregular across the VZV plaque. Downstream substrates of CDKs, including pRb, p107, and GM130, did not show phosphorylation by immunoblotting, and p21 and p27 protein levels were increased following infection. Finally, although the complement of cyclin expression and high CDK activity indicated a progression through the S and G(2) phases of the cell cycle, DNA staining and flow cytometry indicated a possible G(1)/S blockade in infected cells. These data support earlier studies showing that pharmacological CDK inhibitors can inhibit VZV replication in cultured cells.     

Accelerated cell cycle progression in osteoblasts overexpressing the c-fos proto-oncogene: induction of cyclin A and enhanced CDK2 activity

Transgenic mice overexpressing the c-Fos oncoprotein develop osteosarcomas that are associated with deregulated expression of cell cycle genes. Here we have generated osteoblast cell lines expressing c-fos under the control of a tetracycline-regulatable promoter to investigate the role of c-Fos in osteoblast cell cycle control in vitro. Three stable subclones, AT9.2, AT9.3, and AT9.7, derived from MC3T3-E1 mouse osteoblasts, expressed high levels of exogenous c-fos mRNA and protein in the absence of tetracycline. Functional contribution of ectopic c-Fos to AP-1 complexes was confirmed by electromobility shift assays and transactivation of AP-1 reporter constructs. Induction of exogenous c-Fos in quiescent AT9.2 cells caused accelerated S-phase entry following serum stimulation, resulting in enhanced growth rate. Ectopic c-Fos resulted in increased expression of cyclins A and E protein levels, and premature activation of cyclin A-, cyclin E-, and cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 2-associated kinase activities, although cyclin D levels and CDK4 activity were not affected significantly in these cell lines. The enhanced CDK2 kinase activity was associated with a rapid, concomitant dissociation of p27 from CDK2-containing complexes. Deregulated cyclin A expression and CDK2 activity was also observed in primary mouse osteoblasts overexpressing c-Fos, but not in fibroblasts, and c-Fos transgenic tumor-derived osteosarcoma cells constitutively expressed high levels of cyclin A protein. These data suggest that overexpression of c-Fos in osteoblasts results in accelerated S phase entry as a result of deregulated cyclin A/E-CDK2 activity. This represents a novel role for c-Fos in osteoblast growth control and may provide c-Fos-overexpressing osteoblasts with a growth advantage during tumorigenesis.     

Redistribution of the CDK inhibitor p27 between different cyclin.CDK complexes in the mouse fibroblast cell cycle and in cells arrested with lovastatin or ultraviolet irradiation.

The cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor p27 binds and inhibits the kinase activity of several CDKs. Here we report an analysis of the behavior and partners of p27 in Swiss 3T3 mouse fibroblasts during normal mitotic cell cycle progression, as well as in cells arrested at different stages in the cycle by growth factor deprivation, lovastatin treatment, or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. We found that the level of p27 is elevated in cells arrested in G0 by growth factor deprivation or contact inhibition. In G0, p27 was predominantly monomeric, although some portion was associated with residual cyclin A.Cdk2. During G1, all of p27 was associated with cyclin D1.Cdk4 and was then redistributed to cyclin A.Cdk2 as cells entered S phase. The loss of the monomeric p27 pool as cyclins accumulate in G1 is consistent with the in vivo and in vitro data showing that p27 binds better to cyclin.CDK complexes than to monomeric CDKs. In growing cells, the majority of p27 was associated with cyclin D1 and the level of p27 was significantly lower than the level of cyclin D1. In cells arrested in G1 with lovastatin, cyclin D1 was degraded and p27 was redistributed to cyclin A.Cdk2. In contrast to p21 (which is a p27-related CDK inhibitor and is induced by UV irradiation), the level of p27 was reduced after UV irradiation, but because cyclin D1 was degraded more rapidly than p27, there was a transient increase in binding of p27 to cyclin A.Cdk2. These data suggest that cyclin D1.Cdk4 acts as a reservoir for p27, and p27 is redistributed from cyclin D1.Cdk4 to cyclin A.Cdk2 complexes during S phase, or when cells are arrested by growth factor deprivation, lovastatin treatment, or UV irradiation. It is likely that a similar principle of redistribution of p27 is used by the cell in other instances of cell cycle arrest.     

CDK4 activity in mouse embryos expressing a single D-type cyclin

D-type cyclins (D1, D2, and D3) are components of the cell cycle machinery. Their association with cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) and CDK6 causes activation of these protein kinases and leads to phosphorylation and inactivation of the retinoblastoma protein, pRb. Using embryos expressing single D-type cyclin ('cyclin D1-only', 'cyclin D2-only' and 'cyclin D3-only'), we tested whether each of D-type cyclin plays the same role in CDK activation and phosphorylation of pRb during mouse embryonic development. We found that the level of CDK4 activity was similar in wild-type embryos and those expressing only cyclin D3 or cyclin D2. However, we did not detect CDK4 activity in embryos expressing only cyclin D1, despite the fact that this cyclin was able to form complexes with CDK4 and p27(kip1) in wild-type as well as in mutant embryos. Analysis of the expression pattern of mRNA encoding cyclin D1 revealed that the expression of this RNA is regulated temporally during embryogenesis. These data and results from other laboratories indicate that cyclin D1-dependent CDK4 activity is dispensable for normal development of the mouse embryo.     

Expression of cyclin E renders cyclin D-CDK4 dispensable for inactivation of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein, activation of E2F, and G1-S phase progression

The activation of CDK2-cyclin E in late G1 phase has been shown to play a critical role in retinoblastoma protein (pRb) inactivation and G1-S phase progression of the cell cycle. The phosphatidylinositol 3-OH-kinase inhibitor LY294002 has been shown to block cyclin D1 accumulation, CDK4 activity and, thus, G1 progression in alpha-thrombin-stimulated IIC9 cells (Chinese hamster embryonic fibroblasts). Our previous results show that expression of cyclin E rescues S phase progression in alpha-thrombin-stimulated IIC9 cells treated with LY294002, arguing that cyclin E renders CDK4 activity dispensable for G1 progression. In this work we investigate the ability of alpha-thrombin-induced CDK2-cyclin E activity to inactivate pRb in the absence of prior CDK4-cyclin D1 activity. We report that in the absence of CDK4-cyclin D1 activity, CDK2-cyclin E phosphorylates pRb in vivo on at least one residue and abolishes pRb binding to E2F response elements. We also find that expression of cyclin E rescues E2F activation and cyclin A expression in cyclin D kinase-inhibited, alpha-thrombin-stimulated cells. Furthermore, the rescue of E2F activity, cyclin A expression, and DNA synthesis by expression of E can be blocked by the expression of either CDK2(D145N) or RbDeltaCDK, a constitutively active mutant of pRb. However, restoring four known cyclin E-CDK2 phosphorylation sites to RbDeltaCDK renders it susceptible to inactivation in late G1, as assayed by E2F activation, cyclin A expression, and S phase progression. These data indicate that CDK2-cyclin E, without prior CDK4-cyclin D activity, can phosphorylate and inactivate pRb, activate E2F, and induce DNA synthesis.