An Analysis of Plant Growth and its Control in Arctic Environments

The relative growth-rate of plants grown on a vermiculite culturemedium in an arctic climate during the growing season was abouta quarter of that of comparable plants on the same medium ina temperate climate. In both climates the relative growth-ratewas lower on natural soils than on vermiculite. Net assimilationrates and, to a lesser extent, leaf-area ratios were depressedby arctic climates and soils. Net assimilation rates of seven species in various habitatsin two arctic regions were about 0.1–0.3g dm^–2wk^–1.Previous suggestions that net assimilation rates in arctic regionsequal or exceed those in temperate regions are attributed tomisinterpretation of data or to inadequate methods. There is evidence that the depression of net assimilation ratesin arctic regions is due to the low temperatures, which, especiallywhen associated with soil nitrogen deficiency, reduce the rateat which assimilates are used in respiration and new growth;this causes sugars to accumulate to levels at which they depressassimilation.     

Berries contamination by microfungi in Slovakia vineyard regions: Impact of climate conditions on microfungi biodiversity

BackgroundWeather conditions can selectively promote the growth of particular fungal species, which cause rotting and spoilage of grape berries before harvest. The presence of pathogenic fungi can lead to the development of opportunist microfungi that can produce mycotoxins and cause grapes and wine contamination.ObjectiveThe variation of climatic conditions allowed to design a pilot study and address relevant questions for risk assessment of climate related mycotoxins production in grapes and in wine.MethodsMicrofungi contaminating berries during the vegetative period of year 2008 and 2009 in vineyards regions of Slovakia at the early veraison and at the ripening in harvest time have been identified.ResultsSpoilage fungi were more abundant in veraison for both years in all the studied geographical regions, with an average temperature of 20 °C, humidity between 60 and 80%, and precipitation in the range 6–5 mm. Much more strains of toxigenic fungi were found during veraison and ripening in the case of a year temperature variation in the range 17–22.5 °C, humidity values ranging from 58 to 80% and precipitations in the range 0.7–8.4 mm.ConclusionsThe results suggest that there is an effect of the climatic conditions on microfungi biodiversity.     

Community succession of the grapevine fungal microbiome in the annual growth cycle

Microbial ecology and activity in wine production influences grapevine health and productivity, conversion of sugar to ethanol during fermentation, wine aroma, wine quality and distinctiveness. Fungi in the vineyard ecosystem are not well described. Here, we characterized the spatial and temporal dynamics of fungal communities associated with the grapevine (grapes, flowers, leaves, and roots) and soils over an annual growth cycle in two vineyards to investigate the influences of grape habitat, plant developmental stage (flowering, fruit set, veraison, and harvest), vineyards, and climatic conditions. Fungi were influenced by both the grapevine habitat and plant development stage. The core microbiome was prioritized over space and time, and the identified core members drove seasonal community succession. The developmental stage of veraison, where the grapes undergo a dramatic change in metabolism and start accumulating sugar, coincided with a distinct shift in fungal communities. Co-occurrence networks showed strong correlations between the plant microbiome, the soil microbiome, and weather indices. Our study describes the complex ecological dynamics that occur in microbial assemblages over a growing season and highlight succession of the core community in vineyards.     

Agricultural management impacts on soil organic carbon storage under moist and dry climatic conditions of temperate and tropical regions

We conducted a meta-analysis to quantify the impact of changing agricultural land use and management on soil organic carbon (SOC) storage under moist and dry climatic conditions of temperate and tropical regions. We derived estimates of management impacts for a carbon accounting approach developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, addressing the impact of long-term cultivation, setting-aside land from crop production, changing tillage management, and modifying C input to the soil by varying cropping practices. We found 126 articles that met our criteria and analyzed the data in linear mixed-effect models. In general, management impacts were sensitive to climate in the following order from largest to smallest changes in SOC: tropical moist>tropical dry>temperate moist>temperate dry. For example, long-term cultivation caused the greatest loss of SOC in tropical moist climates, with cultivated soils having 0.58 ± 0.12, or 58% of the amount found under native vegetation, followed by tropical dry climates with 0.69 ± 0.13, temperate moist with 0.71 ± 0.04, and temperate dry with 0.82 ± 0.04. Similarly, converting from conventional tillage to no-till increased SOC storage over 20 years by a factor of 1.23 ± 0.05 in tropical moist climates, which is a 23% increase in SOC, while the corresponding change in tropical dry climates was 1.17 ± 0.05, temperate moist was 1.16 ± 0.02, and temperate dry was 1.10 ± 0.03. These results demonstrate that agricultural management impacts on SOC storage will vary depending on climatic conditions that influence the plant and soil processes driving soil organic matter dynamics.     

Characterization of Viticultural Terroirs using a Simple Field Model Based on Soil Depth I. Validation of the Water Supply Regime, Phenology and Vine Vigour, in the Anjou Vineyard (France)

The soil and climate in which grapes are grown play a major role in the vine behaviour, grape quality and wine sensory characteristics. In France, these factors are often integrated in the concept of “Terroir”, which is a topic of growing interest in wine producing countries. The application of this concept requires a scientific approach of the “Terroir climatic and pedoclimatic components” to achieve a rigorous zoning of vineyards. In this paper, results concerning the testing of a method developed in the Anjou vineyard (France) to characterize viticultural terroirs, are presented and discussed. This method uses a field soil model based on the type of parent rock, the depth and the clay richness of soil, mainly in connection with the weathering level of the parent rock. For each geological stage and each type of rock, this easy-to-use model makes it possible to identify three types of soil named: Weakly Weathered Rock (WWR), Moderately Weathered Rock (MWR) and Strongly Weathered Rock (SWR). Each terroir unit obtained by this method can represent a “functional” unit of vine, from the ecophysiological and environmental point of view. To verify this hypothesis, experimental plots planted with Chenin and Cabernet Franc varieties were studied over three consecutive seasons (2000–2002). The main results on vine water supply, burst, and timing of veraison show significant differences, in particular between WWR and SWR. However no significant differences in pruning weight were observed, probably because of high rainfall during all three growing seasons.     

Climatic seasonality challenges the stability of microbial-driven deep soil carbon accumulation across China

Microbial residues contribute to the long-term stabilization of carbon in the entire soil profile, helping to regulate the climate of the planet; however, how sensitive these residues are to climatic seasonality remains virtually unknown, especially for deep soils across environmental gradients. Here, we investigated the changes of microbial residues along soil profiles (0–100 cm) from 44 typical ecosystems with a wide range of climates (~3100 km transects across China). Our results showed that microbial residues account for a larger portion of soil carbon in deeper (60–100 cm) vs. shallower (0–30 and 30–60 cm) soils. Moreover, we find that climate especially challenges the accumulation of microbial residues in deep soils, while soil properties and climate share their roles in controlling the residue accumulation in surface soils. Climatic seasonality, including positive correlations with summer precipitation and maximum monthly precipitation, as well as negative correlations with temperature annual range, are important factors explaining microbial residue accumulation in deep soils across China. In particular, summer precipitation is the key regulator of microbial-driven carbon stability in deep soils, which has 37.2% of relative independent effects on deep-soil microbial residue accumulation. Our work provides novel insights into the importance of climatic seasonality in driving the stabilization of microbial residues in deep soils, challenging the idea that deep soils as long-term carbon reservoirs can buffer climate change.     

酿酒葡萄品质评价及其对气象条件的响应

根据2004～2005年我国北方6省酿酒葡萄主要产区葡萄取样和宁夏芦花台园艺场田间试验葡萄化验结果,运用层次分析方法（AHP）对酿酒葡萄主要品质因子总糖、糖酸比pH、单宁进行综合评价,运用主成分分析方法和因子分析法研究影响每个地区酿酒葡萄综合品质的主要气象因子和影响时段。结果表明：2004～2005年贺兰山东麓的御马、玉泉营、广夏三基地、贺东在庄园;河西走廊的高台、武威;新疆石河子酿酒葡萄品质优良,渤海湾的烟台、蓬莱、昌藜等地酿酒葡萄品质表现一般。酿酒葡萄综合品质主要受果实着色期、全生育期和7～8月的降水量和水热系数的影响,其中降水量起主导作用。果实着色期气温日较差和全生育期平均相对湿度对酿酒葡萄综合品质的形成也有重要影响,影响相对较小的是果实着色期的最低气温。采样地区的光照、温度等气象条件基本适宜酿酒葡萄品质形成,对优质酿酒葡萄形成没有大的限制作用。     

Links between large-scale anomalies, rainfall and wine quality in the Iberian Peninsula during the last three decades

Recent strong El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) signals have been identified in precipitation records from the Iberian Peninsula. Interannual association with ENSO accounts for more than half the total annual variance in selected stations of the south‐east, with ENSO leading rainfall by one year. In contrast, association with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) at the Westernmost stations is much lower (25%). The potential of simple linear models is tested in the ENSO‐sensitive area, suggesting high capability of the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) for predicting interannual rainfall fluctuations (mainly droughts and floods). Wine quality is associated with several factors, e.g. grape variety, soil type and processing, which can be considered invariable, mainly due to the strict regulations imposed by the quality regulating councils. Climate, however, has a great influence on resulting wine quality, and represents the most important source of variability at both short (day‐to‐day) and long (interannual) time scales. Over the last 30 years, high‐quality harvests in the five main wine regions in Spain, show a high probability (P < 0.0002) of being associated with an El Niño event occurring the same year or the year before. NAO influence is not significant during the same period. Thus, apart from considering the role of local climatic conditions in certain regions, which favour the production of excellent wines, larger‐scale climatic phenomena appear responsible for the year‐to‐year variations in quality.     

Spring water deficit and soil conditions matter more than seed origin and summer drought for the establishment of temperate conifers

In anticipation of more severe summer droughts, forestry in temperate Europe is searching for drought-resistant ecotypes of native tree species that might maintain ecosystem services in the future. We investigated how spring precipitation and soil conditions interact with summer drought and affect the establishment of conifer seedlings from different climatic origin. Emergence, establishment and subsequent performance of seedlings originating from autochthonous, Central Alpine, continental Eastern European, and Mediterranean Pinus sylvestris and Picea abies populations were studied in the dry Alpine Rhine valley, Switzerland, at three sites with differing soil water holding capacities and in 3 years with contrasting weather conditions. In addition to this natural inter-annual variation, precipitation was manipulated within sites with throughfall reduction roofs. Seedling establishment and growth were principally affected by the spring weather in the year of emergence. In years with average to positive spring water balance, seedlings grown at the site with the highest water holding capacity had 2–5 times more aboveground biomass than seedlings grown at sites with less favourable soils. Effects of seed origin were marginal and only detectable at the drier sites: contrary to our expectations, seedlings from the Central Alpine Rhone valley, where the climatic spring water deficit is large, outperformed those from the Mediterranean. Consequently, plantation of non-native populations from dryer origin will mitigate the effects of increased summer drought at driest sites only, while the inter-annual variability of spring precipitation will continue to enable temperate conifers to regenerate on a wide range of forest soils independent of seed origin.     

Adaptive and plastic responses of Quercus petraea populations to climate across Europe

How temperate forests will respond to climate change is uncertain; projections range from severe decline to increased growth. We conducted field tests of sessile oak (Quercus petraea), a widespread keystone European forest tree species, including more than 150 000 trees sourced from 116 geographically diverse populations. The tests were planted on 23 field sites in six European countries, in order to expose them to a wide range of climates, including sites reflecting future warmer and drier climates. By assessing tree height and survival, our objectives were twofold: (i) to identify the source of differential population responses to climate (genetic differentiation due to past divergent climatic selection vs. plastic responses to ongoing climate change) and (ii) to explore which climatic variables (temperature or precipitation) trigger the population responses. Tree growth and survival were modeled for contemporary climate and then projected using data from four regional climate models for years 2071–2100, using two greenhouse gas concentration trajectory scenarios each. Overall, results indicated a moderate response of tree height and survival to climate variation, with changes in dryness (either annual or during the growing season) explaining the major part of the response. While, on average, populations exhibited local adaptation, there was significant clinal population differentiation for height growth with winter temperature at the site of origin. The most moderate climate model (HIRHAM5‐EC; rcp4.5) predicted minor decreases in height and survival, while the most extreme model (CCLM4‐GEM2‐ES; rcp8.5) predicted large decreases in survival and growth for southern and southeastern edge populations (Hungary and Turkey). Other nonmarginal populations with continental climates were predicted to be severely and negatively affected (Bercé, France), while populations at the contemporary northern limit (colder and humid maritime regions; Denmark and Norway) will probably not show large changes in growth and survival in response to climate change.     

Oak decline in Helsinki portrayed by tree-rings, climate and soil data

Oak decline has recently been observed in and around Helsinki. Tree-ring widths of pedunculate oak were used to assess pre-mortem growth patterns, their dependence on climatic factors and linkages to soil thickness. Tree-ring chronologies were constructed in three tree vigour classes (healthy, declining and dying oaks). Characteristic “summer response” was found as a positive influence of summer precipitation was the most important climatic factor limiting the radial growth in all vigour classes. On the other hand, a differing “winter response” was found for tree-rings of dying and other classes of oaks. The growth of dying oaks was more sensitive to variations in mid-winter temperatures, due presumably to higher risk of frost damage to their roots. Recent summer droughts, which may have increased the potential for bark necrosis due to reinforcing effects from defoliation in decreasing the capability of oaks to acclimatize to winter frost, may thus have played a role in this decline. Amplified water stress was indicated by dendrochronological parameters on sites with shallow soils.     

Variation in populations of Cepaea nemoralis (L.) in North Spain

In a survey of 105 populations of Cepaea nemoralis sampled in North Spain, the distribution of morph polymorphism seems to have a climatic component. The area sampled corresponds with the two main climatic regions in the Iberian Peninsula: Green and Brown Iberia, which have an Atlantic and Continental climate, respectively. Paler colour and banding phenotypes are found in the Atlantic zone, while the dark ones are commoner in Brown Iberia. This may arise from climatic selection related to behaviour patterns, which may be particularly important in limiting situations with harsh climates.     

Surface-active arthropods in organic vineyards,integrated vineyards and natural habitat in the Cape Floristic Region

The Cape Floristic Region (CFR), South Africa, is a biodiversity hotspot challenged by intensive wine production. Innovative approaches are being explored to optimize wine production without compromising biodiversity. As organic farming enhances biodiversity conservation in many other regions, the aim here was to assess the potential of organic vineyard management for conserving CFR soil surface arthropod diversity. Pitfall traps were used to sample arthropods in three study areas, each of which included an organic vineyard, an integrated vineyard and a natural vegetation reference habitat. Overall arthropod morphospecies richness was highest in natural sites, followed by organic vineyards and then integrated vineyards. The same trend was seen for predators, saprophages and phytophages. The ability of organic vineyards to sustain more morphospecies than integrated vineyards were partially due to higher non-crop vegetation complexity and less intense management in the organic vineyards. Arthropod assemblages were similar in organic and integrated vineyards, while both land-uses differed greatly from natural sites. Variation among natural vegetation assemblages in different study areas was also much greater than among assemblages of cultivated sites. Organic vineyard management has the potential to make an important contribution to arthropod conservation in the CFR at the field scale. However, at the landscape scale, natural habitat supports a much wider variety of morphospecies, and the preservation of natural fragments in the vineyard landscape may be the most effective measure to increase biodiversity in the winelands.     

葡萄生态系统中自然微生物群落多样性及其代谢酶系统的研究现状

自然微生物是影响葡萄生理生长和葡萄酒质量的重要因素,广泛存在于葡萄和葡萄酒的生态系统中。其中,微生物的种类、数量和生长分布取决于气候、土壤、生长时期和发酵过程控制等多种因素。自然状态下,葡萄微生态系统的物种组成和代谢作用直接影响葡萄藤的健康和葡萄酒的发酵质量,并产生特定的葡萄酒风土特征。因此,本文对现有研究的葡萄园土壤、果实和葡萄酒自然发酵过程中的真菌和细菌的群落多样性和动态变化,及其代谢酶类对葡萄酒质量特性的影响进行了综述,以期通过对微生物群落的生理代谢和生态作用的全面认识,探究葡萄微生态的互作机理和代谢功能,促使微生物群落向葡萄和葡萄酒有益的方向发展,从而达到葡萄生态系统可持续、高质量发展的目的。     

中国欧亚种酿酒葡萄种植分布的主要气候影响因子与气候适宜性

开展酿酒葡萄气候适宜性研究对于优化酿酒葡萄布局、气候资源开发利用具有重要意义。基于欧亚种酿酒葡萄(Vitis vinifera L.)分布数据和影响其分布的气候因子,利用最大熵模型(MaxEnt)和地理信息系统(ArcGIS),研究影响欧亚种酿酒葡萄种植分布的主导气候因子及其气候适宜性。结果表明:MaxEnt模型能够很好地模拟我国欧亚种酿酒葡萄的潜在分布,模拟效果达到"非常好"(AUC平均值0.936)的水平。基于气候因子对欧亚种酿酒葡萄地理分布影响的贡献确定了主导气候因子,即无霜期、干燥度、极端最低气温、年降水量、生长季日照时数、≥10℃活动积温。当前,我国欧亚种酿酒葡萄种植分布的气候高适宜区、适宜区、次适宜区分别占次适宜及以上区域总面积的2.9%、20.4%和76.7%。欧亚种酿酒葡萄气候高适宜区主要分布在宁夏、山西、陕西、内蒙古、山东、河北、新疆、甘肃等省,只考虑气候因子,陕西、山西、内蒙古具有较大的发展空间。     

Genetic diversity and population structure of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains isolated from different grape varieties and winemaking regions

We herein evaluate intraspecific genetic diversity of fermentative vineyard-associated S. cerevisiae strains and evaluate relationships between grape varieties and geographical location on populational structures. From the musts obtained from 288 grape samples, collected from two wine regions (16 vineyards, nine grape varieties), 94 spontaneous fermentations were concluded and 2820 yeast isolates were obtained that belonged mainly (92%) to the species S. cerevisiae. Isolates were classified in 321 strains by the use of ten microsatellite markers. A high strain diversity (8-43 strains per fermentation) was associated with high percentage (60-100%) of fermenting samples per vineyard, whereas a lower percentage of spontaneous fermentations (0-40%) corresponded to a rather low strain diversity (1-10 strains per fermentation).For the majority of the populations, observed heterozygosity (Ho) was about two to five times lower than the expected heterozygosity (He). The inferred ancestry showed a very high degree of admixture and divergence was observed between both grape variety and geographical region. Analysis of molecular variance showed that 81-93% of the total genetic variation existed within populations, while significant differentiation within the groups could be detected. Results from AMOVA analysis and clustering of allelic frequencies agree in the distinction of genetically more dispersed populations from the larger wine region compared to the less extended region. Our data show that grape variety is a driver of populational structures, because vineyards with distinct varieties harbor genetically more differentiated S. cerevisiae populations. Conversely, S. cerevisiae strains from vineyards in close proximity (5-10 km) that contain the same grape variety tend to be less divergent. Populational similarities did not correlate with the distance between vineyards of the two wine regions. Globally, our results show that populations of S. cerevisiae in vineyards may occur locally due to multi-factorial influences, one of them being the grape variety.     

Decomposition of 13C-labelled standard plant material in a latitudinal transect of European coniferous forests: Differential impact of climate on the decomposition of soil organic matter compartments

¹³C labelled plant material was incubated in situ over 2 to 3 years in 8 conifer forest soils located on acid and limestone parent material along a north-south climatic transect from boreal to dry Mediterranean regions in western Europe. The objectives of the experiment were to evaluate the effects of climate and the soil environment on decomposition and soil organic matter dynamics. Changes in climate were simulated using a north-to-south cascade procedure involving the relocation of labelled soil columns to the next warmer site along the transect.Double exponential, decay-rate functions (for labile and recalcitrant SOM compartments) vs time showed that the thermosensitivity of microbial processes depended on the latitude from which the soil was translocated. Cumulative response functions for air temperature, and for combined temperature and moisture were used as independent variables in first order kinetic models fitted to the decomposition data. In the situations where climatic response functions explained most of the variations in decomposition rates when the soils were translocated, the climate optimised decomposition rates for the local and the translocated soil should be similar. Differences between these two rates indicated that there was either no single climatic response function for one or both compartments, and/or other edaphic factors influenced the translocation effect. The most northern boreal soil showed a high thermosensitivity for recalcitrant organic matter compartment, whereas the labile fraction was less sensitive to climate changes for soils from more southern locations. Hence there was no single climatic function which describe the decay rates for all compartments. At the end of the incubation period it was found that the heat sum to achieve the same carbon losses was lower for soils in the north of the transect than in the south. In the long term, therefore, for a given heat input, decomposition rates would show larger increases in boreal northern sites than in warm temperate regions.The changes in climate produced by soil translocation were more clearly reflected by decomposition rates in the acid soils than for calcareous soils. This indicates that the physicochemical environment can have important differential effects on microbial decomposition of the labile and recalcitrant components of SOM.     

Biodiversity of Saccharomyces yeast strains from grape berries of wine-producing areas using starter commercial yeasts

The use of commercial wine yeast strains as starters has grown extensively over the past two decades. In this study, a large-scale sampling plan was devised over a period of 3 years in three different vineyards in the south of France, to evaluate autochthonous wine yeast biodiversity in vineyards around wineries where active dry yeasts have been used as fermentation starters for more than 5 years. Seventy-two spontaneous fermentations were completed from a total of 106 grape samples, and 2160 colonies were isolated. Among these, 608 Saccharomyces strains were identified and 104 different chromosomal patterns found. The large majority of these (91) were found as unique patterns, indicating great biodiversity. There were differences in biodiversity according to the vineyard and year, showing that the biodiversity of Saccharomyces strains is influenced by climatic conditions and specific factors associated with the vineyards, such as age and size. Strains that were terroir yeast candidates were not found. The biodiversity of S. cerevisiae strains after harvest was similar to that in the early campaign; moreover, a temporal succession of S. cerevisiae strains is shown. This fact, together with the differences in biodiversity levels verifies that other factors were more important than commercial yeast utilization in the biodiversity of the vineyard.     

Isolation and characteristics of lactic acid bacteria from koshu vineyards in Japan

Aims:  To isolate, characterize and identify lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in the vineyards where koshu grapes, a primary wine grape cultivar in Japan, are grown.
Methods and Results:  Sixty samples, including leaves, undamaged grape berries and soil under damaged berries, were collected at four koshu vineyards in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. One hundred and 15 acid-producing cultures were isolated from these samples, and the isolates were divided into classes by phenotype and then into groups by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and sequencing of 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA). Phenotypic and biochemical characteristics identified seven different bacterial groups (A to G). Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis was the most abundant type of LAB distributed in three koshu vineyards, and Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides was the most abundant LAB found in the remaining vineyard. Forty-six isolates produced bacteriocin-like inhibitory substances (BLIS) against the indicator strain Lactobacillus sakei JCM 1157^T.
Conclusions:  These results suggest that various LAB are distributed in koshu vineyards, of which a large number produce BLIS.
Significance and Impact of the Study:  This is the first report describing the distribution and varieties of LAB that exist in koshu vineyards.     

Disentangling the relative importance of climate,size and competition on tree growth in Iberian forests: implications for forest management under global change

Most large‐scale multispecies studies of tree growth have been conducted in tropical and cool temperate forests, whereas Mediterranean water‐limited ecosystems have received much less attention. This limits our understanding of how growth of coexisting tree species varies along environmental gradients in these forests, and the implications for species interactions and community assembly under current and future climatic conditions. Here, we quantify the absolute effect and relative importance of climate, tree size and competition as determinants of tree growth patterns in Iberian forests, and explore interspecific differences in the two components of competitive ability (competitive response and effect) along climatic and size gradients. Spatially explicit neighborhood models were developed to predict tree growth for the 15 most abundant Iberian tree species using permanent‐plot data from the Spanish Second and Third National Forest Inventory (IFN). Our neighborhood analyses showed a climatic and size effect on tree growth, but also revealed that competition from neighbors has a comparatively much larger impact on growth in Iberian forests. Moreover, the sensitivity to competition (i.e. competitive response) of target trees varied markedly along climatic gradients causing significant rank reversals in species performance, particularly under xeric conditions. We also found compelling evidence for strong species‐specific competitive effects in these forests. Altogether, these results constitute critical new information which not only furthers our understanding of important theoretical questions about the assembly of Mediterranean forests, but will also be of help in developing new guidelines for adapting forests in this climatic boundary to global change. If we consider the climatic gradients of this study as a surrogate for future climatic conditions, then we should expect absolute growth rates to decrease and sensitivity to competition to increase in most forests of the Iberian Peninsula (in all but the northern Atlantic forests), making these management considerations even more important in the future.