A Highlights from MBoC Selection: The rod domain is not essential for the function of plectin in maintaining tissue integrity

Epidermolysis bullosa simplex associated with late-onset muscular dystrophy (EBS-MD) is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from mutations in the plectin gene. The majority of these mutations occur within the large exon 31 encoding the central rod domain and leave the production of a low-level rodless plectin splice variant unaffected. To investigate the function of the rod domain, we generated rodless plectin mice through conditional deletion of exon 31. Rodless plectin mice develop normally without signs of skin blistering or muscular dystrophy. Plectin localization and hemidesmosome organization are unaffected in rodless plectin mice. However, superresolution microscopy revealed a closer juxtaposition of the C-terminus of plectin to the integrin β4 subunit in rodless plectin keratinocytes. Wound healing occurred slightly faster in rodless plectin mice than in wild-type mice, and keratinocytes migration was increased in the absence of the rod domain. The faster migration of rodless plectin keratinocytes is not due to altered biochemical properties because, like full-length plectin, rodless plectin is a dimeric protein. Our data demonstrate that rodless plectin can functionally compensate for the loss of full-length plectin in mice. Thus the low expression level of plectin rather than the absence of the rod domain dictates the development of EBS-MD.     

Targeted proteolysis of plectin isoform 1a accounts for hemidesmosome dysfunction in mice mimicking the dominant skin blistering disease EBS-Ogna

Autosomal recessive mutations in the cytolinker protein plectin account for the multisystem disorders epidermolysis bullosa simplex (EBS) associated with muscular dystrophy (EBS-MD), pyloric atresia (EBS-PA), and congenital myasthenia (EBS-CMS). In contrast, a dominant missense mutation leads to the disease EBS-Ogna, manifesting exclusively as skin fragility. We have exploited this trait to study the molecular basis of hemidesmosome failure in EBS-Ogna and to reveal the contribution of plectin to hemidesmosome homeostasis. We generated EBS-Ogna knock-in mice mimicking the human phenotype and show that blistering reflects insufficient protein levels of the hemidesmosome-associated plectin isoform 1a. We found that plectin 1a, in contrast to plectin 1c, the major isoform expressed in epidermal keratinocytes, is proteolytically degraded, supporting the notion that degradation of hemidesmosome-anchored plectin is spatially controlled. Using recombinant proteins, we show that the mutation renders plectin's 190-nm-long coiled-coil rod domain more vulnerable to cleavage by calpains and other proteases activated in the epidermis but not in skeletal muscle. Accordingly, treatment of cultured EBS-Ogna keratinocytes as well as of EBS-Ogna mouse skin with calpain inhibitors resulted in increased plectin 1a protein expression levels. Moreover, we report that plectin's rod domain forms dimeric structures that can further associate laterally into remarkably stable (paracrystalline) polymers. We propose focal self-association of plectin molecules as a novel mechanism contributing to hemidesmosome homeostasis and stabilization.     

Cloning and sequencing of rat plectin indicates a 466-kD polypeptide chain with a three-domain structure based on a central alpha-helical coiled coil

We have determined the complete cDNA sequence of rat plectin from a number of well-characterized overlapping lambda gt11 clones. The 4,140-residue predicted amino acid sequence (466,481 D) is consistent with a three-domain structural model in which a long central rod domain, having mainly an alpha-helical coiled coil conformation, is flanked by globular NH2- and COOH-terminal domains. The plectin sequence has a number of repeating motifs. The rod domain has five subregions approximately 200-residues long in which there is a strong repeat in the charged amino acids at 10.4 residues that may be involved in association between plectin molecules. The globular COOH-terminal domain has a prominent six-fold tandem repeat, with each repeat having a strongly conserved central region based on nine tandem repeats of a 19-residue motif. The plectin sequence has several marked similarities to that of desmoplakin (Green, K. J., D. A. D. Parry, P. M. Steinert, M. L. A. Virata, R. M. Wagner, B. D. Angst, and L.A. Nilles. 1990. J. Biol. Chem. 265:2,603-2,612), which has a shorter coiled-coil rod domain with a similar 10.4 residue charge periodicity and a COOH-terminal globular domain with three tandem repeats homologous to the six found in plectin. The plectin sequence also has homologies to that of the bullous pemphigoid antigen. Northern blot analysis indicated that there is a significant degree of conservation of plectin genes between rat, human, and chicken and that, as shown previously at the protein level, plectin has a wide tissue distribution. There appeared to be a single rat plectin gene that gave rise to a 15-kb message. Expression of polypeptides encoded by defined fragments of plectin cDNA in E. coli has also been used to localize the epitopes of a range of monoclonal and serum antibodies. This enabled us to tentatively map a sequence involved in plectin-vimentin and plectin-lamin B interactions to a restricted region of the rod domain.     

Plectin interacts with the rod domain of type III intermediate filament proteins desmin and vimentin

Plectin is a versatile cytolinker protein critically involved in the organization of the cytoskeletal filamentous system. The muscle-specific intermediate filament (IF) protein desmin, which progressively replaces vimentin during differentiation of myoblasts, is one of the important binding partners of plectin in mature muscle. Defects of either plectin or desmin cause muscular dystrophies. By cell transfection studies, yeast two-hybrid, overlay and pull-down assays for binding analysis, we have characterized the functionally important sequences for the interaction of plectin with desmin and vimentin. The association of plectin with both desmin and vimentin predominantly depended on its fifth plakin repeat domain and downstream linker region. Conversely, the interaction of desmin and vimentin with plectin required sequences contained within the segments 1A-2A of their central coiled-coil rod domain. This study furthers our knowledge of the interaction between plectin and IF proteins important for maintenance of cytoarchitecture in skeletal muscle. Moreover, binding of plectin to the conserved rod domain of IF proteins could well explain its broad interaction with most types of IFs.     

kakapo, a Gene Required for Adhesion Between and Within Cell Layers in Drosophila, Encodes a Large Cytoskeletal Linker Protein Related to Plectin and Dystrophin

Mutations in kakapo were recovered in genetic screens designed to isolate genes required for integrin-mediated adhesion in Drosophila. We cloned the gene and found that it encodes a large protein (>5,000 amino acids) that is highly similar to plectin and BPAG1 over the first 1,000–amino acid region, and contains within this region an α-actinin type actin-binding domain. A central region containing dystrophin-like repeats is followed by a carboxy domain that is distinct from plectin and dystrophin, having neither the intermediate filament-binding domain of plectin nor the dystroglycan/syntrophin-binding domain of dystrophin. Instead, Kakapo has a carboxy terminus similar to the growth arrest–specific protein Gas2. Kakapo is strongly expressed late during embryogenesis at the most prominent site of position-specific integrin adhesion, the muscle attachment sites. It is concentrated at apical and basal surfaces of epidermal muscle attachment cells, at the termini of the prominent microtubule bundles, and is required in these cells for strong attachment to muscles. Kakapo is also expressed more widely at a lower level where it is essential for epidermal cell layer stability. These results suggest that the Kakapo protein forms essential links among integrins, actin, and microtubules.     

Monoclonal antibody mapping of structural and functional plectin epitopes

To map structural and functional epitopes of the cytomatrix protein plectin, a set of mAbs was prepared by immunization of mice. Using immunoblot analysis of plectin fragments obtained after limited digestion with various proteases, two groups of mAbs were distinguished. The epitopes of one group (1) were located on a 130-kD terminal segment of the plectin 300-kD polypeptide chain, whereas those of the other group (2) bound within a 40kD segment confined to a central domain of the polypeptide chain. Domains containing the epitopes of group 2 mAbs were shown to include in vitro phosphorylation sites for kinase A, whereas kinase C phosphorylation sites were found on the same terminal segment that contained group 1 mAb epitopes. Rotary shadowing EM of mAb (Fab fragment) -decorated plectin molecules at various states of aggregation, ranging from characteristic dumbbell-shaped single molecules to highly complex multimeric structures, revealed that the epitopes of group 1 as well as those of group 2 mAbs were located on plectin's roughly 200-nm long rod domain interlinking its two globular end domains. Epitopes of group 1 mAbs were localized within a region near the center of the rod, those of group 2 in more peripheral sections near the globular end domains. Solid-phase binding assays carried out in the presence of Fab fragments of mAbs demonstrated an interference of certain group 1 mAbs in the interactions of plectin with vimentin and lamin B. On the other hand, plectin's self-interaction was inhibited mainly by Fab fragments with epitopes in the peripheral rod domain (group 2 mAbs). Together, these results suggested that the molecular binding sites of plectin for vimentin and lamin B, as well as the phosphorylation sites for kinase C, were confined to a defined central section of plectin's rod domain. In addition, they suggest an involvement of peripheral rod sections in plectin self-association.     

Expression of plectin mutant cDNA in cultured cells indicates a role of COOH-terminal domain in intermediate filament association

Plectin is an intermediate filament (IF) binding protein of exceptionally large size. Its molecular structure, revealed by EM and predicted by its sequence, indicates an NH2-terminal globular domain, a long rodlike central domain, and a globular COOH-terminal domain containing six highly homologous repeat regions. To examine the role of the various domains in mediating plectin's interaction with IFs, we have constructed rat cDNAs encoding truncated plectin mutants under the control of the SV-40 promoter. Mutant proteins expressed in mammalian COS and PtK2 cells could be distinguished from endogenous wild type plectin by virtue of a short carboxy-terminal antigenic peptide (P tag). As shown by conventional and confocal immunofluorescence microscopy, the transient expression of plectin mutants containing all six or the last four of the repeat regions of the COOH-terminus, or the COOH-terminus and the rod, associated with IF networks of both the vimentin and the cytokeratin type and eventually caused their collapse into perinuclear aggregates. Similar effects were observed upon expression of a protein encoded by a full length cDNA construct. Microtubules and microfilaments were unaffected. Unexpectedly, mutants containing the rod without any of the COOH-terminal repeats, accumulated almost exclusively within the nuclei of cells. When the rod was extended by the first one and a half of the COOH-terminal repeats, mutant proteins showed a partial cytoplasmic distribution, although association with intermediate filaments was not observed. Nuclear and diffuse cytoplasmic distribution was also observed upon expression of the NH2-terminal domain without rod. These results indicate that sequences located roughly within the last two thirds of the globular COOH-terminus are indispensable for association of plectin with intermediate filaments in living cells.     

Actin-binding domain of mouse plectin. Crystal structure and binding to vimentin.

Plectin, a large and widely expressed cytolinker protein, is composed of several subdomains that harbor binding sites for a variety of different interaction partners. A canonical actin-binding domain (ABD) comprising two calponin homology domains (CH1 and CH2) is located in proximity to its amino terminus. However, the ABD of plectin is unique among actin-binding proteins as it is expressed in the form of distinct, plectin isoform-specific versions. We have determined the three-dimensional structure of two distinct crystalline forms of one of its ABD versions (pleABD/2alpha) from mouse, to a resolution of 1.95 and 2.0 A. Comparison of pleABD/2alpha with the ABDs of fimbrin and utrophin revealed structural similarity between plectin and fimbrin, although the proteins share only low sequence identity. In fact, pleABD/2alpha has been found to have the same compact fold as the human plectin ABD and the fimbrin ABD, differing from the open conformation described for the ABDs of utrophin and dystrophin. Plectin harbors a specific binding site for intermediate filaments of various types within its carboxy-terminal R5 repeat domain. Our experiments revealed an additional vimentin-binding site of plectin, residing within the CH1 subdomain of its ABD. We show that vimentin binds to this site via the amino-terminal part of its rod domain. This additional amino-terminal intermediate filament protein binding site of plectin may have a function in intermediate filament dynamics and assembly, rather than in linking and stabilizing intermediate filament networks.     

Association of Mitochondria with Plectin and Desmin Intermediate Filaments in Striated Muscle

Plectin (M(r) > 500,000) is a versatile and widely expressed cytolinker protein. In striated muscle it is predominantly found at the Z-disc level where it colocalizes with the intermediate filament protein desmin. Both proteins show altered labeling patterns in tissues of muscular dystrophy patients. Moreover, mutations in the plectin gene lead to the autosomal recessive human disorder epidermolysis bullosa simplex with muscular dystrophy, and defects in the desmin gene have been shown to cause familiar cardiac and skeletal myopathy. Since intermediate filaments (IFs) in striated muscle tissue have been found to be intimately associated with mitochondria, we investigated whether plectin is involved in this association. Using postembedding immunogold labeling of Lowicryl sections and immunogold labeling of ultrathin cryosections, we show that plectin is associated with desmin IFs linking myofibrils to mitochondria at the level of the Z-disc and along the entire length of the sarcomere. The localization of plectin label at the mitochondrial membrane itself was consistent with a putative linker function of plectin between desmin IFs and the mitochondrial surface. In mitochondrion-rich muscle fibers, both plectin and desmin were part of an ordered arrangement of mitochondrial side branches, which wound around myofibrils adjacent to the Z-discs and were anchored into a filamentous network transversing from one fibril to the other. The association of mitochondria with plectin and IFs was seen also in tissues without regular distribution patterns of mitochondria, such as heart muscle and neonatal skeletal muscle tissues. These data were supplemented with in vitro binding assays showing direct interaction of plectin with desmin via its carboxy-terminal IF-binding domain. As a cytolinker protein associated with mitochondria and desmin IFs, plectin could play an important role in the positioning and shape formation, in particular branching, of mitochondrial organelles in striated muscle tissues.     

Cytoskeleton-associated plectin: in situ localization, in vitro reconstitution, and binding to immobilized intermediate filament proteins

The association and interaction of plectin (Mr 300,000) with intermediate filaments and filament subunit proteins were studied. Immunoelectron microscopy of whole mount cytoskeletons from various cultured cell lines (rat glioma C6, mouse BALB/c 3T3, and Chinese hamster ovary) and quick-frozen, deep-etched replicas of Triton X-100-extracted rat embryo fibroblast cells revealed that plectin was primarily located at junction sites and branching points of intermediate filaments. These results were corroborated by in vitro recombination studies using vimentin and plectin purified from C6 cells. Filaments assembled from mixtures of both proteins were extensively crosslinked by oligomeric plectin structures, as demonstrated by electron microscopy of negatively stained and rotary-shadowed specimens as well as by immunoelectron microscopy; the binding of plectin structures on the surface of filaments and cross-link formation occurred without apparent periodicity. Plectin's cross-linking of reconstituted filaments was also shown by ultracentrifugation experiments. As revealed by the rotary-shadowing technique, filament-bound plectin structures were oligomeric and predominantly consisted of a central globular core region of 30-50 nm with extending filaments or filamentous loops. Solid-phase binding to proteolytically degraded vimentin fragments suggested that plectin interacts with the helical rod domain of vimentin, a highly conserved structural element of all intermediate filament proteins. Accordingly, plectin was found to bind to the glial fibrillar acidic protein, the three neurofilament polypeptides, and skin keratins. These results suggest that plectin is a cross-linker of vimentin filaments and possibly also of other intermediate filament types.     

Structure and hydrodynamic properties of plectin molecules

Plectin is a cytoskeletal, high molecular weight protein of widespread and abundant occurrence in cultured cells and tissues. To study its molecular structure, the protein was purified from rat glioma C6 cells and subjected to chemical and biophysical analyses. Plectin's polypeptide chains have an apparent molecular weight of 300,000, as shown by one-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate/polyacrylamide electrophoresis. Cross-linking of non-denatured plectin in solution with dimethyl suberimidate and electrophoretic analyses on sodium dodecyl sulfate/agarose gels revealed that the predominant soluble plectin species was a molecule of 1200 X 10(3) Mr consisting of four 300 X 10(3) Mr polypeptide chains. Hydrodynamic properties of plectin in solution were obtained by sedimentation velocity centrifugation and high-pressure liquid chromatography analysis yielding a sedimentation coefficient of 10 S and a Stokes radius of 27 nm. The high f/fmin ratio of 4.0 indicated a very elongated shape of plectin molecules and an axial ratio of about 50. Shadowing and negative staining electron microscopy of plectin molecules revealed multiple domains: a rigid rod of 184 nm in length and 2 nm in diameter, and two globular heads of 9 nm diameter at each end of the rod. Circular dichroism spectra suggested a composition of 30% alpha-helix, 9% beta-structure and 61% random coil or aperiodic structure. The rod-like shape, the alpha-helix content as well as the thermal transition within a midpoint of 45 degrees C and the transition enthalpy (168 kJ/mol) of secondary structure suggested a double-stranded, alpha-helical coiled coil rod domain. Based on the available data, we favor a model of native plectin as a dumb-bell-like association of four 300 X 10(3) Mr polypeptide chains. Electron microscopy and turbidity measurements showed that plectin molecules self-associate into various oligomeric states in solutions of nearly physiological ionic strength. These interactions apparently involved the globular end domains of the molecule. Given its rigidity and elongated shape, and its tendency towards self-association, plectin may well be an interlinking element of the cytoskeleton that may also form a network of its own.     

Partial proteolysis of plectin and localization of self-interaction and vimentin binding sites on separate molecular domains

Summary Plectin is a high Mr cytomatrix protein consisting of an elongated rod domain terminated by a globe at each end. Partial proteolysis of plectin by elastase, protease V 8 or trypsin and rotary shadowing electron microscopy of samples revealed mainly filamentous structures, steadily decreasing in length with digestion time. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of elastase- and protease V 8-treated samples revealed a number of fragments from Mr 300,000 to 100,000. These fragments most likely represented intact or large portions of plectin's rod domain, as they were immunoreactive with a monoclonal antibody specific for plectin rods. As shown by electron microscopy, centrifugation, and solid phase binding assays, intact as well as fragmented plectin self-associated via its globular domains; vimentin interaction, on the other hand, occurred via the rod domain. Thus, plectin molecules contain at least two structurally and functionally distinct domains.Abbreviations EGTA ethylene glycol bis (-aminoethylether) N,N N,N-tetraacetic acid - Mr molecular weight - PMSF phenylmethyl sulfonyl fluoride - SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate     

Modeling and experimental validation of the binary complex of the plectin actin-binding domain and the first pair of fibronectin type III (FNIII) domains of the beta4 integrin

The binding of plectin to the beta4 subunit of the alpha6beta4 integrin is a critical step in the formation of hemidesmosomes. An important interaction between these two proteins occurs between the actin-binding domain (ABD) of plectin and the first pair of fibronectin type III (FNIII) domains and a small part of the connecting segment of beta4. Previously, a few amino acids, critical for this interaction, were identified in both plectin and beta4 and mapped on the crystal structures of the ABD of plectin and the first pair of FNIII domains of beta4. In the present study, we used this biochemical information and protein-protein docking calculations to construct a model of the binary complex between these two protein domains. The top scoring computational model predicts that the calponin-homology 1 (CH1) domain of the ABD associates with the first and the second FNIII domains of beta4. Our mutational analysis of the residues at the proposed interface of both the FNIII and the CH1 domains is in agreement with the suggested interaction model. Computational simulations to predict protein motions suggest that the exact model of FNIII and plectin CH1 interaction might well differ in detail from the suggested model due to the conformational plasticity of the FNIII domains, which might lead to a closely related but different mode of interaction with the plectin-ABD. Furthermore, we show that Ser-1325 in the connecting segment of beta4 appears to be essential for the recruitment of plectin into hemidesmosomes in vivo. This is consistent with the proposed model and previously published mutational data. In conclusion, our data support a model in which the CH1 domain of the plectin-ABD associates with the groove between the two FNIII domains of beta4.     

M-phase-specific phosphorylation and structural rearrangement of the cytoplasmic cross-linking protein plectin involve p34cdc2 kinase.

Plectin, a widespread and abundant cytoskeletal cross-linking protein, serves as a target for protein kinases throughout the cell cycle, without any significant variation in overall phosphorylation level. One of the various phosphorylation sites of the molecule was found to be phosphorylated preferentially during mitosis. By in vivo phosphorylation of ectopically expressed plectin domains in stably transfected Chinese hamster ovary cells, this site was mapped to the C-terminal repeat 6 domain of the polypeptide. The same site has been identified as an in vitro target for p34cdc2 kinase. Mitosis-specific phosphorylation of plectin was accompanied by a rearrangement of plectin structures, changing from a filamentous, largely vimentin-associated state in interphase to a diffuse vimentin-independent distribution in mitosis as visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy. Subcellular fractionation studies showed that in interphase cells up to 80% of cellular plectin was found associated with an insoluble cell fraction mostly consisting of intermediate filaments, while during mitosis the majority of plectin (> 75%) became soluble. Furthermore, phosphorylation of purified plectin by p34cdc2 kinase decreased plectin's ability to interact with preassembled vimentin filaments in vitro. Together, our data suggest that a mitosis-specific phosphorylation involving p34cdc2 kinase regulates plectin's cross-linking activities and association with intermediate filaments during the cell cycle.     

Structural and functional analysis of the actin binding domain of plectin suggests alternative mechanisms for binding to F-actin and integrin beta4

Plectin is a widely expressed cytoskeletal linker. Here we report the crystal structure of the actin binding domain of plectin and show that this region is sufficient for interaction with F-actin or the cytoplasmic region of integrin alpha6beta4. The structure is formed by two calponin homology domains arranged in a closed conformation. We show that binding to F-actin induces a conformational change in plectin that is inhibited by an engineered interdomain disulfide bridge. A two-step induced fit mechanism involving binding and subsequent domain rearrangement is proposed. In contrast, interaction with integrin alpha6beta4 occurs in a closed conformation. Competitive binding of plectin to F-actin and integrin alpha6beta4 may rely on the observed alternative binding mechanisms and involve both allosteric and steric factors.     

A regulatory domain in the N terminus of tryptophan hydroxylase 2 controls enzyme expression

Serotonin is involved in a variety of physiological processes in the central nervous system and the periphery. As the rate-limiting enzyme in serotonin synthesis, tryptophan hydroxylase plays an important role in modulating these processes. Of the two variants of tryptophan hydroxylase, tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) is expressed predominantly in the central nervous system, whereas tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (TPH1) is expressed mostly in peripheral tissues. Although the two enzymes share considerable sequence homology, the regulatory domain of TPH2 contains an additional 41 amino acids at the N terminus that TPH1 lacks. Here we show that the extended TPH2 N-terminal domain contains a unique sequence involved in the regulation of enzyme expression. When expressed in cultured mammalian cells, TPH2 is synthesized less efficiently and is also less stable than TPH1. Removal of the unique portion of the N terminus of TPH2 results in expression of the enzyme at a level similar to that of TPH1, whereas protein chimeras containing this fragment are expressed at lower levels than their wild-type counterparts. We identify a region centered on amino acids 10-20 that mediates the bulk of this effect. We also demonstrate that phosphorylation of serine 19, a protein kinase A consensus site located in this N-terminal domain, results in increased TPH2 stability and consequent increases in enzyme output in cell culture systems. Because this domain is unique to TPH2, these data provide evidence for selective regulation of brain serotonin synthesis.     

Electron microscopic structure of agrin and mapping of its binding site in laminin-1.

Agrin is a large, multidomain heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with basement membranes of several tissues. Particular splice variants of agrin are essential for the formation of synaptic structures at the neuromuscular junction. The binding of agrin to laminin appears to be required for its localization to synaptic basal lamina and other basement membranes. Here, electron microscopy was used to determine the structure of agrin and to localize its binding site in laminin-1. Agrin appears as an approximately 95 nm long particle that consists of a globular, N-terminal laminin-binding domain, a central rod predominantly formed by the follistatin-like domains and three globular, C-terminal laminin G-like domains. In a few cases, heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains were seen emerging from the central portion of the core protein. Moreover, we show that agrin binds to the central region of the three-stranded, coiled-coil oligomerization domain in the long arm of laminin-1, which mediates subunit assembly of the native laminin molecule. In summary, our data show for the first time a protein-protein interaction of the extracellular matrix that involves a coiled-coil domain, and they assign a novel role to this domain of laminin-1. Based on this, we propose that agrin associates with basal lamina in a polarized way.