ELISA analysis of beta-secretase cleavage of the Swedish amyloid precursor protein in the secretory and endocytic pathways

Limiting beta amyloid (Abeta) production could become an important therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Abeta is derived by the sequential cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta- and gamma-secretases. A double missense mutation in APP found in a Swedish pedigree (APPsw) elevates Abeta40 and Abeta42 production. Abeta production and, therefore, beta-secretase cleavage of APPsw reportedly occur in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi and endocytic compartments. However, the relative contribution of beta-secretase cleavage occurring in each compartment has not been determined. Experiments described here use a novel ELISA to measure the beta-cleaved product, APPswbeta. Using this ELISA, we provide new information regarding the relative amount of beta-secretase cleavage of APPsw that occurs in secretory and endocytic pathways. Using a dilysine retrieval motif to retain APPsw in the ER, we discovered that less than 15% of the beta-secretase cleavage was still detected. Experiments utilizing endocytosis-impaired mutants of APPsw revealed that little or no beta-secretase cleavage of APPsw appears to take place through endocytosis. Surprisingly, deletion of the entire cytoplasmic tail increased both APPswbeta and Abeta secretion, suggesting that protein interactions with this region normally impede beta-secretase cleavage. These results suggest that APPsw is cleaved by beta-secretase late in the secretory pathway.     

Protein kinase C-dependent alpha-secretase competes with beta-secretase for cleavage of amyloid-beta precursor protein in the trans-golgi network

The release of amyloidogenic amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) from amyloid-beta precursor protein (APP) requires cleavage by beta- and gamma-secretases. In contrast, alpha-secretase cleaves APP within the Abeta sequence and precludes amyloidogenesis. Regulated and unregulated alpha-secretase activities have been reported, and the fraction of cellular alpha-secretase activity regulated by protein kinase C (PKC) has been attributed to the ADAM (a disintegrin and metalloprotease) family members TACE and ADAM-10. Although unregulated alpha-secretase cleavage of APP has been shown to occur at the cell surface, we sought to identify the intracellular site of PKC-regulated alpha-secretase APP cleavage. To accomplish this, we measured levels of secreted ectodomains and C-terminal fragments of APP generated by alpha-secretase (sAPPalpha) (C83) versus beta-secretase (sAPPbeta) (C99) and secreted Abeta in cultured cells treated with PKC and inhibitors of TACE/ADAM-10. We found that PKC stimulation increased sAPPalpha but decreased sAPPbeta levels by altering the competition between alpha- versus beta-secretase for APP within the same organelle rather than by perturbing APP trafficking. Moreover, data implicating the trans-Golgi network (TGN) as a major site for beta-secretase activity prompted us to hypothesize that PKC-regulated alpha-secretase(s) also reside in this organelle. To test this hypothesis, we performed studies demonstrating proteolytically mature TACE intracellularly, and we also showed that regulated alpha-secretase APP cleavage occurs in the TGN using an APP mutant construct targeted specifically to the TGN. By detecting regulated alpha-secretase APP cleavage in the TGN by TACE/ADAM-10, we reveal ADAM activity in a novel location. Finally, the competition between TACE/ADAM-10 and beta-secretase for intracellular APP cleavage may represent a novel target for the discovery of new therapeutic agents to treat Alzheimer's disease.     

Beta-amyloid peptide in regulated secretory vesicles of chromaffin cells: evidence for multiple cysteine proteolytic activities in distinct pathways for beta-secretase activity in chromaffin vesicles

A key factor in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the beta-secretase activity that is required for the production of beta-amyloid (Abeta) peptide from its amyloid precursor protein (APP) precursor. In this study, the majority of Abeta secretion from neuronal chromaffin cells was found to occur via the regulated secretory pathway, compared with the constitutive secretory pathway; therefore, beta-secretase activity in the regulated secretory pathway was examined for the production and secretion of Abeta in chromaffin cells obtained from in vivo adrenal medullary tissue. The presence of Abeta(1-40) in APP-containing chromaffin vesicles, which represent regulated secretory vesicles, was demonstrated by radioimmunoassay (RIA) and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. These vesicles also contain Abeta(1-42), measured by RIA. Significantly, regulated secretion of Abeta(1-40) from chromaffin cells represented the majority of secreted Abeta (> 95% of total secreted Abeta), compared with low levels of constitutively secreted Abeta(1-40). These results indicate the importance of Abeta production and secretion in the regulated secretory pathway as a major source of extracellular Abeta. Beta-secretase activity in isolated chromaffin vesicles was detected with the substrate Z-Val-Lys-Met-/MCA (methylcoumarinamide) that contains the beta-secretase cleavage site. Optimum beta-secretase activity in these vesicles required reducing conditions and acidic pH (pH 5-6), consistent with the in vivo intravesicular environment. Evidence for cysteine protease activity was shown by E64c inhibition of Z-Val-Lys-Met-MCA-cleaving activity, and E64c inhibition of Abeta(1-40) production in isolated chromaffin vesicles. Chromatography resolved the beta-secretase activity into two distinct proteolytic pathways consisting of: (i) direct cleavage of the beta-secretase site at Met-/Asp by two cysteine proteolytic activities represented by peaks Il-A and Il-B, and (ii) an aminopeptidase-dependent pathway represented by peak I cysteine protease activity that cleaves between Lys-/Met, followed by Met-aminopeptidase that would generate the beta-secretase cleavage site. Treatment of chromaffin cells in primary culture with the cysteine protease inhibitor E64d reduced the production of the beta-secretase product, a 12-14 kDa C-terminal APP fragment. In addition, BACE 1 and BACE 2 were detected in chromaffin vesicles; BACE 1 represented a small fraction of total beta-secretase activity in these vesicles. These results illustrate that multiple cysteine proteases, in combination with BACE 1, contribute to beta-secretase activity in the regulated secretory pathway. These results complement earlier findings for BACE 1 as beta3-secretase for Abeta production in the constitutive secretory pathway that provides basal secretion of Abeta into conditioned media. These findings suggest that drug inhibition of several proteases may be required for reducing Abeta levels as a potential therapeutic approach for AD.     

Inhibitors of cathepsin B improve memory and reduce beta-amyloid in transgenic Alzheimer disease mice expressing the wild-type, but not the Swedish mutant, beta-secretase site of the amyloid precursor protein

Elucidation of Abeta-lowering agents that inhibit processing of the wild-type (WT) beta-secretase amyloid precursor protein (APP) site, present in most Alzheimer disease (AD) patients, is a logical approach for improving memory deficit in AD. The cysteine protease inhibitors CA074Me and E64d were selected by inhibition of beta-secretase activity in regulated secretory vesicles that produce beta-amyloid (Abeta). The regulated secretory vesicle activity, represented by cathepsin B, selectively cleaves the WT beta-secretase site but not the rare Swedish mutant beta-secretase site. In vivo treatment of London APP mice, expressing the WT beta-secretase site, with these inhibitors resulted in substantial improvement in memory deficit assessed by the Morris water maze test. After inhibitor treatment, the improved memory function was accompanied by reduced amyloid plaque load, decreased Abeta40 and Abeta42, and reduced C-terminal beta-secretase fragment derived from APP by beta-secretase. However, the inhibitors had no effects on any of these parameters in mice expressing the Swedish mutant beta-secretase site of APP. The notable efficacy of these inhibitors to improve memory and reduce Abeta in an AD animal model expressing the WT beta-secretase APP site present in the majority of AD patients provides support for CA074Me and E64d inhibitors as potential AD therapeutic agents.     

Altered amyloid-beta metabolism and deposition in genomic-based beta-secretase transgenic mice

Amyloid-beta (Abeta) the primary component of the senile plaques found in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is generated by the rate-limiting cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta-secretase followed by gamma-secretase cleavage. Identification of the primary beta-secretase gene, BACE1, provides a unique opportunity to examine the role this unique aspartyl protease plays in altering Abeta metabolism and deposition that occurs in AD. The current experiments seek to examine how modulating beta-secretase expression and activity alters APP processing and Abeta metabolism in vivo. Genomic-based BACE1 transgenic mice were generated that overexpress human BACE1 mRNA and protein. The highest expressing BACE1 transgenic line was mated to transgenic mice containing human APP transgenes. Our biochemical and histochemical studies demonstrate that mice overexpressing both BACE1 and APP show specific alterations in APP processing and age-dependent Abeta deposition. We observed elevated levels of Abeta isoforms as well as significant increases of Abeta deposits in these double transgenic animals. In particular, the double transgenics exhibited a unique cortical deposition profile, which is consistent with a significant increase of BACE1 expression in the cortex relative to other brain regions. Elevated BACE1 expression coupled with increased deposition provides functional evidence for beta-secretase as a primary effector in regional amyloid deposition in the AD brain. Our studies demonstrate, for the first time, that modulation of BACE1 activity may play a significant role in AD pathogenesis in vivo.     

Protein kinase C regulation of intracellular and cell surface amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleavage in CHO695 cells

Cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta-secretase generates beta-amyloid (Abeta), the major component of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease. Cleavage of APP by alpha-secretase prevents Abeta formation, producing nonamyloidogenic secreted APPs products. PKC-regulated APP alpha-secretase cleavage has been shown to involve tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) converting enzyme (TACE). To determine the location of APP cleavage, we examined PKC-regulated APPs secretion by examining cell surface versus intracellular APP in CHO cells stably expressing APP(695) (CHO695). We demonstrate that PKC regulates cell surface and intracellular APP cleavage. The majority of secreted APPs originates from the intracellular compartment, and PKC does not cause an increase in APP trafficking to the cell surface for cleavage. Therefore, intracellular APP regulated by PKC must be cleaved at an intracellular site. Experiments utilizing Brefeldin A suggest APP cleavage occurs at the Golgi or late in the secretory pathway. Experiments using TAPI, an inhibitor of TACE, demonstrate PKC-regulated APPs secretion from the cell surface is inhibited after pretreatment with TAPI, and APPs secretion from the intracellular pool is partially inhibited after pretreatment with TAPI. These findings suggest PKC-regulated APP cleavage occurs at multiple locations within the cell and both events appear to involve TACE.     

Amyloidogenic processing of amyloid precursor protein: evidence of a pivotal role of glutaminyl cyclase in generation of pyroglutamate-modified amyloid-beta

Compelling evidence suggests that N-terminally truncated and pyroglutamyl-modified amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides play a major role in the development of Alzheimer's disease. Posttranslational formation of pyroglutamic acid (pGlu) at position 3 or 11 of Abeta implies cyclization of an N-terminal glutamate residue rendering the modified peptide degradation resistant, more hydrophobic, and prone to aggregation. Previous studies using artificial peptide substrates suggested the potential involvement of the enzyme glutaminyl cyclase in generation of pGlu-Abeta. Here we show that glutaminyl cyclase (QC) catalyzes the formation of Abeta 3(pE)-40/42 after amyloidogenic processing of APP in two different cell lines, applying specific ELISAs and Western blotting based on urea-PAGE. Inhibition of QC by the imidazole derivative PBD150 led to a blockage of Abeta 3(pE)-42 formation. Apparently, the QC-catalyzed formation of N-terminal pGlu is favored in the acidic environment of secretory compartments, which is also supported by double-immunofluorescence labeling of QC and APP revealing partial colocalization. Finally, initial investigations focusing on the molecular pathway leading to the generation of truncated Abeta peptides imply an important role of the amino acid sequence near the beta-secretase cleavage site. Introduction of a single-point mutation, resulting in an amino acid substitution, APP(E599Q), i.e., at position 3 of Abeta, resulted in significant formation of Abeta 3(pE)-40/42. Introduction of the APP KM595/596NL "Swedish" mutation causing overproduction of Abeta, however, surprisingly diminished the concentration of Abeta 3(pE)-40/42. The study provides new cell-based assays for the profiling of small molecule inhibitors of QC and points to conspicuous differences in processing of APP depending on sequence at the beta-secretase cleavage site.     

The protease inhibitor, MG132, blocks maturation of the amyloid precursor protein Swedish mutant preventing cleavage by beta-Secretase

Amyloid (Abeta) peptides found aggregated into plaques in Alzheimer's disease are derived from the sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) first by beta- and then by gamma-secretases. Peptide aldehydes, which inhibit cysteine proteases and proteasomes, reportedly block Abeta peptide secretion by interfering with gamma-secretase cleavage. Using a novel, specific, and sensitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the beta-secretase-cleaved fragment of the Swedish mutant of APP (APPSw), we determined that the peptide aldehyde, MG132, prevented beta-secretase cleavage. This block in beta-secretase cleavage was not observed with clasto-lactacystin beta-lactone and thus, cannot be attributed to proteasomal inhibition. MG132 inhibition of beta-secretase cleavage was compared with the serine protease inhibitor, 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride (AEBSF). AEBSF inhibition of beta-secretase cleavage was immediate and did not affect alpha-secretase cleavage. With MG132, inhibition was delayed and it decreased secretion of alpha-cleaved APPSw as well. Furthermore, MG132 treatment impaired maturation of full-length APPSw. Both inhibited intracellular formation of the beta-cleaved product. These results suggest that peptide aldehydes such as MG132 have multiple effects on the maturation and processing of APP. We conclude that the MG132-induced decrease in beta-secretase cleavage of APPSw is due to a block in maturation. This is sufficient to explain the previously reported peptide aldehyde-induced decrease in Abeta peptide secretion.     

PAR-4 is involved in regulation of beta-secretase cleavage of the Alzheimer amyloid precursor protein

Mounting evidence indicates that aberrant production and aggregation of amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta)-(1-42) play a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD). Abeta is produced when amyloid precursor protein (APP) is cleaved by beta- and gamma-secretases at the N and C termini of the Abeta domain, respectively. The beta-secretase is membrane-bound aspartyl protease, most commonly known as BACE1. Because BACE1 cleaves APP at the N terminus of the Abeta domain, it catalyzes the first step in Abeta generation. PAR-4 (prostate apoptosis response-4) is a leucine zipper protein that was initially identified to be associated with neuronal degeneration and aberrant Abeta production in models of AD. We now report that the C-terminal domain of PAR-4 is necessary for forming a complex with the cytosolic tail of BACE1 in co-immunoprecipitation assays and in vitro pull-down experiments. Overexpression of PAR-4 significantly increased, whereas silencing of PAR-4 expression by RNA interference significantly decreased, beta-secretase cleavage of APP. These results suggest that PAR-4 may be directly involved in regulating the APP cleavage activity of BACE1. Because the increased BACE1 activity observed in AD patients does not seem to arise from genetic mutations or polymorphisms in BACE1, the identification of PAR-4 as an endogenous regulator of BACE1 activity may have significant implications for developing novel therapeutic strategies for AD.     

The Arctic Alzheimer mutation favors intracellular amyloid-beta production by making amyloid precursor protein less available to alpha-secretase

Mutations within the amyloid-beta (Abeta) domain of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) typically generate hemorrhagic strokes and vascular amyloid angiopathy. In contrast, the Arctic mutation (APP E693G) results in Alzheimer's disease. Little is known about the pathologic mechanisms that result from the Arctic mutation, although increased formation of Abeta protofibrils in vitro and intraneuronal Abeta aggregates in vivo suggest that early steps in the amyloidogenic pathway are facilitated. Here we show that the Arctic mutation favors proamyloidogenic APP processing by increased beta-secretase cleavage, as demonstrated by altered levels of N- and C-terminal APP fragments. Although the Arctic mutation is located close to the alpha-secretase site, APP harboring the Arctic mutation is not an inferior substrate to a disintegrin and metalloprotease-10, a major alpha-secretase. Instead, the localization of Arctic APP is altered, with reduced levels at the cell surface making Arctic APP less available for alpha-secretase cleavage. As a result, the extent and subcellular location of Abeta formation is changed, as revealed by increased Abeta levels, especially at intracellular locations. Our findings suggest that the unique clinical symptomatology and neuropathology associated with the Arctic mutation, but not with other intra-Abeta mutations, could relate to altered APP processing with increased steady-state levels of Arctic Abeta, particularly at intracellular locations.     

Effects of peptides derived from BACE1 catalytic domain on APP processing

One of the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the deposition of beta-amyloid (Abeta) peptides in neuritic plaques. Abeta peptides are derived from sequential cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta- and gamma-secretases. beta-APP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE1) has been shown to be the major beta-secretase and is a primary therapeutic target for AD. We report here novel BACE1 inhibitory peptidomimetics, which are derived from catalytic domains of BACE1 themselves, instead of APP cleavage sites and are structurally modified by myristoylation in N-terminus for efficient cell permeability. The peptides not only inhibited the formation of APPbeta (a soluble N-terminal fragment of APP cleaved by beta-secretase), but also significantly reduced Abeta40 production. Our results suggest a new approach for identifying inhibitory agents for the treatment of AD.     

Efficient inhibition of beta-secretase gene expression in HEK293 cells by tRNAVal-driven and CTE-helicase associated hammerhead ribozymes.

The beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta) is a major component of toxic amyloid plaques found in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Abeta is liberated by sequential cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta- and gamma-secretases. The level of Abeta depends directly on the hydrolytic activity of beta-secretase. Therefore, beta-secretase is an excellent target for drug design. An approach based on RNA-cleaving ribozymes was developed to control expression of beta-secretase. Two sites of mRNA coding beta-site APP cleaving enzyme were chosen as target sequences for endogenously delivered ribozymes. The ribozyme cassette was designed to constitute a catalytic hammerhead core and substrate recognition arms, flanked at the 5'-terminus by tRNAVal and at the 3'-terminus by constitutive transport element sequences. Ribozyme cassettes were cloned into a pUC19 plasmid and used for transient transfection of HEK293 cells. We demonstrate that such ribozymes efficiently inhibit beta-secretase gene expression at both the mRNA (up to 95%) and the protein (up to 90%) levels. Inhibition of beta-site APP cleaving enzyme activity directly influences the intra- and extracellular population of Abeta peptide. Therefore, such ribozymes may be considered as molecular tools for silencing the beta-secretase activity, and further, as therapeutic agents for anti-amyloid treatment.     

The novel beta-secretase inhibitor KMI-429 reduces amyloid beta peptide production in amyloid precursor protein transgenic and wild-type mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. The major component of the plaques, amyloid beta peptide (Abeta), is generated from amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta- and gamma-secretase-mediated cleavage. Because beta-secretase/beta-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) knockout mice produce much less Abeta and grow normally, a beta-secretase inhibitor is thought to be one of the most attractive targets for the development of therapeutic interventions for AD without apparent side-effects. Here, we report the in vivo inhibitory effects of a novel beta-secretase inhibitor, KMI-429, a transition-state mimic, which effectively inhibits beta-secretase activity in cultured cells in a dose-dependent manner. We injected KMI-429 into the hippocampus of APP transgenic mice. KMI-429 significantly reduced Abeta production in vivo in the soluble fraction compared with vehicle, but the level of Abeta in the insoluble fraction was unaffected. In contrast, an intrahippocampal injection of KMI-429 in wild-type mice remarkably reduced Abeta production in both the soluble and insoluble fractions. Our results indicate that the beta-secretase inhibitor KMI-429 is a promising candidate for the treatment of AD.     

A novel sorting nexin modulates endocytic trafficking and alpha-secretase cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein

Ectodomain shedding of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the two proteases alpha- and beta-secretase is a key regulatory event in the generation of the Alzheimer disease amyloid beta peptide (Abeta). beta-Secretase catalyzes the first step in Abeta generation, whereas alpha-secretase cleaves within the Abeta domain, prevents Abeta generation, and generates a secreted form of APP with neuroprotective properties. At present, little is known about the cellular mechanisms that control APP alpha-secretase cleavage and Abeta generation. To explore the contributory pathways, we carried out an expression cloning screen. We identified a novel member of the sorting nexin (SNX) family of endosomal trafficking proteins, called SNX33, as a new activator of APP alpha-secretase cleavage. SNX33 is a homolog of SNX9 and was found to be a ubiquitously expressed phosphoprotein. Exogenous expression of SNX33 in cultured cells increased APP alpha-secretase cleavage 4-fold but surprisingly had little effect on beta-secretase cleavage. This effect was similar to the expression of the dominant negative dynamin-1 mutant K44A. SNX33 bound the endocytic GTPase dynamin and reduced the rate of APP endocytosis in a dynamin-dependent manner. This led to an increase of APP at the plasma membrane, where alpha-secretase cleavage mostly occurs. In summary, our study identifies SNX33 as a new endocytic protein, which modulates APP endocytosis and APP alpha-secretase cleavage, and demonstrates that the rate of APP endocytosis is a major control factor for APP alpha-secretase cleavage.     

Distinct secretases, a cysteine protease and a serine protease, generate the C termini of amyloid beta-proteins Abeta1-40 and Abeta1-42, respectively

The carboxy-terminal ends of the 40- and 42-amino acids amyloid beta-protein (Abeta) may be generated by the action of at least two different proteases termed gamma(40)- and gamma(42)-secretase, respectively. To examine the cleavage specificity of the two proteases, we treated amyloid precursor protein (APP)-transfected cell cultures with several dipeptidyl aldehydes including N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Leu-leucinal (Z-LL-CHO) and the newly synthesized N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-leucinal (Z-VL-CHO). All dipeptidyl aldehydes tested inhibited production of both Abeta1-40 and Abeta1-42. Changes in the P1 and P2 residues of these aldehydes, however, indicated that the amino acids occupying these positions are important for the efficient inhibition of gamma-secretases. Peptidyl aldehydes inhibit both cysteine and serine proteases, suggesting that the two gamma-secretases belong to one of these mechanistic classes. To differentiate between the two classes of proteases, we treated our cultures with the specific cysteine protease inhibitor E-64d. This agent inhibited production of secreted Abeta1-40, with a concomitant accumulation of its cellular precursor indicating that gamma(40)-secretase is a cysteine protease. In contrast, this treatment increased production of secreted Abeta1-42. No inhibition of Abeta production was observed with the potent calpain inhibitor I (acetyl-Leu-Leu-norleucinal), suggesting that calpain is not involved. Together, these results indicate that gamma(40)-secretase is a cysteine protease distinct from calpain, whereas gamma(42)-secretase may be a serine protease. In addition, the two secretases may compete for the same substrate. Dipeptidyl aldehyde treatment of cultures transfected with APP carrying the Swedish mutation resulted in the accumulation of the beta-secretase C-terminal APP fragment and a decrease of the alpha-secretase C-terminal APP fragment, indicating that this mutation shifts APP cleavage from the alpha-secretase site to the beta-secretase site.     

Biochemical and kinetic characterization of BACE1: investigation into the putative species-specificity for beta- and beta'-cleavage sites by human and murine BACE1

Beta-amyloid peptides (Abeta) are produced by a sequential cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by beta- and gamma-secretases. The lack of Abeta production in beta-APP cleaving enzyme (BACE1)(-/-) mice suggests that BACE1 is the principal beta-secretase in mammalian neurons. Transfection of human APP and BACE1 into neurons derived from wild-type and BACE1(-/-) mice supports cleavage of APP at the canonical beta-secretase site. However, these studies also revealed an alternative BACE1 cleavage site in APP, designated as beta', resulting in Abeta peptides starting at Glu11. The apparent inability of human BACE1 to make this beta'-cleavage in murine APP, and vice versa, led to the hypothesis that this alternative cleavage was species-specific. In contrast, the results from human BACE1 transgenic mice demonstrated that the human BACE1 is able to cleave the endogenous murine APP at the beta'-cleavage site. To address this discrepancy, we designed fluorescent resonance energy transfer peptide substrates containing the beta- and beta'-cleavage sites within human and murine APP to compare: (i) the enzymatic efficiency; (ii) binding kinetics of a BACE1 active site inhibitor LY2039911; and (iii) the pharmacological profiles for human and murine recombinant BACE1. Both BACE1 orthologs were able to cleave APP at the beta- and beta'-sites, although with different efficiencies. Moreover, the inhibitory potency of LY2039911 toward recombinant human and native BACE1 from mouse or guinea pig was indistinguishable. In summary, we have demonstrated, for the first time, that recombinant BACE1 can recognize and cleave APP peptide substrates at the postulated beta'-cleavage site. It does not appear to be a significant species specificity to this cleavage.     

Inhibition of amyloid beta-peptide production by blockage of beta-secretase cleavage site of amyloid precursor protein

Amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) is implicated as the major causative agent in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Abeta is produced by the processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by BACE1 (beta-secretase) and gamma-secretase. Many inhibitors have been developed for the secretases. However, the inhibitors will interfere with the processing of not only APP but also of other secretase substrates. In this study, we describe the development of inhibitors that prevent production of Abeta by specific binding to the beta-cleavage site of APP. We used the hydropathic complementarity (HC) approach for the design of short peptide inhibitors. Some of the HC peptides were bound to the substrate peptide (Sub W) corresponding to the beta-cleavage site of APP and blocked its cleavage by recombinant human BACE1 (rhBACE1) in vitro. In addition, HC peptides specifically inhibited the cleavage of Sub W, and not affecting other BACE1 substrates. Chemical modification allowed an HC peptide (CIQIHF) to inhibit the processing of APP as well as the production of Abeta in the treated cells. Such novel APP-specific inhibitors will provide opportunity for the development of drugs that can be used for the prevention and treatment of AD with minimal side effects.     

Compounds that bind APP and inhibit Abeta processing in vitro suggest a novel approach to Alzheimer disease therapeutics

Extracellular deposits of aggregated amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides are a hallmark of Alzheimer disease; thus, inhibition of Abeta production and/or aggregation is an appealing strategy to thwart the onset and progression of this disease. The release of Abeta requires processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by both beta- and gamma-secretase. Using an assay that incorporates full-length recombinant APP as a substrate for beta-secretase (BACE), we have identified a series of compounds that inhibit APP processing, but do not affect the cleavage of peptide substrates by BACE1. These molecules also inhibit the processing of APP and Abeta by BACE2 and selectively inhibit the production of Abeta(42) species by gamma-secretase in assays using CTF99. The compounds bind directly to APP, likely within the Abeta domain, and therefore, unlike previously described inhibitors of the secretase enzymes, their mechanism of action is mediated through APP. These studies demonstrate that APP binding agents can affect its processing through multiple pathways, providing proof of concept for novel strategies aimed at selectively modulating Abeta production.     

Internalization of exogenously added memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) ectodomain by cells is mediated by amyloid precursor protein

Memapsin 2 (beta-secretase) is the protease that initiates cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) leading to the production of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptide and the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Both APP and memapsin 2 are Type I transmembrane proteins and are endocytosed into endosomes where APP is cleaved by memapsin 2. Separate endocytic signals are located in the cytosolic domains of these proteins. We demonstrate here that the addition of the ectodomain of memapsin 2 (M2(ED)) to cells transfected with native APP or APP Swedish mutant (APPsw) resulted in the internalization of M2(ED) into endosomes with increased Abeta production. These effects were reduced by treatment with glycosylphosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. The nontransfected parental cells had little internalization of M2(ED). The internalization of M2(ED) was dependent on the endocytosis signal in APP, because the expression of a mutant APP that lacks its endocytosis signal failed to support M2(ED) internalization. These results suggest that exogenously added M2(ED) interacts with the ectodomain of APP on the cell surface leading to the internalization of M2(ED), supported by fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments. The interactions between the two proteins is not due to the binding of substrate APPsw to the active site of memapsin 2, because neither a potent active site binding inhibitor of memapsin 2 nor an antibody directed to the beta-secretase site of APPsw had an effect on the uptake of M2(ED). In addition, full-length memapsin 2 and APP, immunoprecipitated together from cell lysates, suggested that the interaction of these two proteins is part of the native cellular processes.