旅游干扰对非人灵长类动物的影响

随着经济发展及生活水平的提高,以亲近自然为主要目的的生态旅游正成为公众的主要休闲方式.作为人类的近亲,非人灵长类动物在吸引游客方面具有天然的亲和力,因此很多保护区及旅游景区正逐渐把“猴园”、“猴谷”及“猴岛”等作为招揽游客的平台.野外观猴能够提高公众的野生动物保护意识,但同时也给动物带来了负面影响.该文综述旅游活动对动物行为模式、繁殖和健康状况等的影响,并对减少不利影响的措施进行归纳总结,为开展非人灵长类动物观赏旅游提供参考.     

我国猕猴体内寄生虫调查报告

猿猴类生活于热带,亚热带森林地区,行群居生活,因此容易感染各种寄生虫病(Wardle,1952;Ruch,1959)而且猴群亦有进入人类生活圈的机会,许多寄生虫病是人猴共有的。研究猿猴寄生虫对防治猴病,保障猴群健康有重要作用（Лапнн,1963;Kaufmann,1971）,同时,应用猴子作为人类寄生虫的实验模型(Valerio,1971;Pryor,1970),亦极有意义。最早应用猿猴作为实验动物,就是应用猴子作实验性疟疾的研究。近年来,应用幼年猴进行疟疾的实验治疗和免疫学的研究,屡见报道。而且其它人体寄生虫应用猴子作试验的也并不少见。关于我国所产猕猴猴体寄生虫的调查（尹文直,1973）材料不多,尚未见有完整的报告。为了能充分利用猴子这一宝贵的实验动物,进行寄生虫学的研究,我们将1960年到1979年中,从野外捕捉的十一批猕猴所进行的猴体寄生虫调查。     

生态旅游活动中游客噪声对滇金丝猴的影响

生态旅游被视为解决保护和发展的最有效手段之一,但现阶段的生态旅游开展对野生动物造成影响的程度和方式还缺乏研究。为研究生态旅游活动开展过程中产生的噪声是否会对滇金丝猴（Rinopithecus bieti）产生影响,2017年7月5日至2018年2月8日,在云南香格里拉滇金丝猴国家公园,采用10 min间隔的瞬时扫描取样法记录游客噪声、观赏距离、可见滇金丝猴总数量及其不同年龄-性别组滇金丝猴个体数量。结果显示,生态旅游行为显著增加了环境噪声值,向游客开放时段的噪声值（52.42 dB）显著高于非开放时段（47.51 dB）,且游客数量越多噪声值越大;游客的观赏距离越近可见的滇金丝猴个体数量越少,且不同观赏距离下可见的滇金丝猴个体数存在显著差异,当观赏距离在11 ~ 15 m时,游客可见滇金丝猴总数量最多（2 046只）;在1 ~ 5 m的观赏距离内,不同年龄-性别组猴的理论可见数量不同,成年雄性猴的理论可见数量最高（2.9只）,其次是青少年猴（2.2只）,成年雌猴（1.8只）和婴猴（1.6只）最低。推测,不同年龄-性别组滇金丝猴个体抵抗干扰的能力不同,成年雄性猴抗干扰能力最强,其次是青少年猴个体,成年雌性猴和婴猴抗干扰能力较弱。由此,本研究认为,现阶段香格里拉滇金丝猴国家公园的生态旅游活动增加了环境噪声,且对滇金丝猴的行为产生了一定的干扰;游客观赏距离越近、游客数量越多,干扰越大。建议在未来的生态旅游过程中,严格设立游客观赏距离,且观赏距离应在10 m以上;设立标语,提醒游客保持安静,减少噪音,从而减少对滇金丝猴的干扰。     

首例太行山猕猴双胞胎初报

2014年4月21日17∶30,在河南省济源市五龙口风景区的一个太行山猕猴Macaca mulatta tcheliensis群(WLK-1)内首次发现了太行山猕猴一胎双生的现象。采用焦点动物取样法对双胞胎母亲和婴猴进行了观察和记录,旨在对母猴早期育婴行为特征和婴猴个体发育进行初步研究。这是国内首次报道野外条件下猕猴的双胞胎现象。     

我国猕猴体内奇生虫调查报告

猿猴类生活于热带,亚热带森林地区,行群居生活,因此容易感染各种寄生虫病[Wardle,1952;Ruch,1959]而且猴群亦有进入人类生活圈的机会,许多寄生虫病是人猴共有的。研究猿猴寄生虫对防治猴病,保障猴群健康有重要作用[naliHH,1963;Kaufmann,1971],同时,应用猴子作为人类寄生虫的实验模型[Valcrio,1971;Pryor,1970],亦极有意义。最早应用猿猴作为实验动物,就是应用猴子作实验性疟疾的研究。近年来,应用幼年猴进行疟疾的实验治疗和免疫学的研究,屡见报道。而且其它人体寄生虫应用猴子作试验的也並不少见。关于我国所产猕猴猴体寄生虫的调查[尹文直 1973]材料不多,尚未见有完整的报告。为了能充分利用猴子这一宝贵的实验动物,进行寄生虫学的研究,我们将1960年到1979年中,从野外捕捉的十一批猕猴所进行的猴体寄生虫调查,报告如下:     

国内涉及非圈养猕猴的旅游区现状调查

猕猴（Macaca mulatta）是自然分布最广泛的非人灵长类,因其行为多样且表情丰富,不仅是动物园和野生动物园等处常见的观赏动物,亦是诸多旅游区的重要观赏资源。近年来,国内不时有引入猕猴开展旅游活动的相关新闻报道,但猕猴相关旅游现状尚不清楚。本研究以“猕猴”和“旅游”“景区”“保护区”及“森林公园”等为关键词,利用“百度”搜索引擎进行检索,检索时间设为2000年1月至2021年10月,提取包括猕猴观赏地的行政区域、类别、猕猴来源和状态、引入猕猴年份和数量等信息,旨在了解国内猕猴观赏旅游现状,为猕猴资源保护与管理提供依据。结果表明：1）共检索到164处猕猴观赏区,分布于全国20个省级行政区,冠以“景区”“森林公园”“保护区”和“旅游区”的地区分别有97、36、20和11处;2）猕猴自然分布的观赏区有105处,明确为引入猕猴的有53处,而来源不详的有6处,其中,北京、山东、江苏及河北的23处观赏区内猕猴均为人为引入;3）20世纪80和90年代便有地区开始引入猕猴,2005年至2010年引入猕猴的观赏区最多,达16处;4）在已知的引入猕猴观赏区中,仅13处有明确的猴源输出地,其中包括3处引自猕猴来源较复杂的河南新野猕猴繁殖场。本研究提示,国内猕猴观赏活动在一定程度上改变了猕猴的自然分布格局。建议野生动物管理部门对涉及猕猴观赏项目建立分级审批制度,尤其是针对引入猕猴开展旅游活动的项目应先开展生态安全评估。     

五只笼养猕猴群体等级结构及对笼舍区域利用情况

为了解动物园笼养猕猴的社会等级结构及其对笼舍不同区域利用率,从2017年4月至2018年3月利用瞬时扫描取样法（5 min间隔）,对都匀市西山公园的M1（成年雄猴）、F1（成年雌猴）、F2（青年雌猴）、F3（青年雌猴）和F4（幼年雌猴）5只笼养猕猴的攻击、屈服行为发生频次及其所处笼舍A（高空区）、B（休息区）、C（丰容区）、D（笼底区）和E区（前笼区）的次数进行研究。结果表明,该猴群社会等级顺位从高到低是M1﹥F1﹥F2﹥F3﹥F4;在笼舍中猕猴对C区全年利用率最高,依次减少的是B、D、E和A区;不同性别猕猴对A、B和D区的利用率具有显著差异（P<0.05）;不同年龄段猕猴对A、B和D区的利用率差异显著（P<0.05）;不同季节猕猴对各区域的利用率无显著差异。研究说明猕猴等级结构与年龄、性别和亲缘关系有关,对笼舍各区域利用率与性别和年龄因素有关、与季节无关。     

太行山猕猴的死婴携带行为初报

于2012年5月2日至5月28日,采用焦点动物取样法和全事件记录法对河南省济源市五龙口风景区的一个太行山猕猴群(WLK-5)内一例成年雌性的死婴携带行为进行了观察和记录。结果表明:死婴携带持续26d,属长期携带;母亲对死婴的照料行为主要包括携带行为、理毛行为和亲吻行为等;在此期间,母亲行为表现异常:情绪低落、胆小怕人、很少与其他个体接触。本文对猕猴的死婴携带行为进行了初步探讨。     

贵州黔灵山公园半野生的猕猴的种群动态

科学分析动物种群增长动态,合理确定环境容量是管控城市半野生动物种群激增危害的根本途径。本文对贵州贵阳黔灵山公园半野生猕猴种群特征、种群增长、环境容纳量以及猴群对公园的危害进行了研究分析。结果表明：（1）较之野生种群,园内栖息种群密度高、猴群大。现有8个稳定猴群共计1067只[最小群：47只;最大群：226只,平均：（133±67）只],总体雌雄性比为1.33;全区种群密度约达251只/km²,但猴群主要栖息于游道及其周边,导致主分布区密度高达 2134只/km2;（2）种群增长迅速、繁殖力旺盛。自1992年以来,种群呈指数型增长（年均增长率为8.08%,增长函数为y=30.6789*exp[(x-1987)/8.7894+ 64.0193),当前种群总体年龄结构为成年猴>青年猴>幼年猴,虽青幼个体数量较成年个体少,但成年雌雄性比达到1.50,性成熟个体较多,有效种群数大,仍保持旺盛的繁殖力;（3）种群Logistic增长曲线（y=792/(1+2.8495E+183*exp-0.2104x）表明园内环境容量（K值）为792只,与该区猕猴伤人事件频率曲线进入高位平台期所对应的种群数量接近。文中还对猴群栖息对当地植物多样性造成的影响进行了调查。调查监测表明,种群过大且集中栖息导致公园内生物多样性破坏、人猴冲突、公共健康隐患等一系列问题产生,建议应通过节育、分流等相关措施,将种群数量控制在K/2即400只左右为宜。本文可为黔灵山公园猕猴保护管理及其他城市野生动物管理提供参考。     

猕猴(Macaca mulatta)主动脉弓的分支类型

随着心血管系统研究的进展和猿猴在医学中的广泛应用,猴主动脉弓分支的情况引起人们的重视。虽然张胜泉等（1974）对猕猴的心脏冠状动脉的解剖学作过调查,但有关主动脉弓分支的资料很少。为此,我们进行了本题研究,以供参考。     

Multi-Year Impacts of Ecotourism on Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) Visitation at Ningaloo Reef,Western Australia

In-water viewing of sharks by tourists has become a popular and lucrative industry. There is some concern that interactions with tourists with ecotourism operations might harm sharks through disruption of behaviours. Here, we analysed five years of whale shark (Rhincodon typus) encounter data by an ecotourism industry at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia, to assess the impact of ecotourism interactions on shark visitation, within the context of the biological and physical oceanography of the region. Our data base consisted of 2823 encounter records for 951 individual whale sharks collected by ecotourism operators between 2007 and 2011. We found that total encounters per whale shark and encounters per boat trip increased through time. On average, whale sharks re-encountered in subsequent years were encountered earlier, stayed longer and tended to be encountered more often within a season than sharks that were only encountered in a single year. Sequential comparisons between years did not show any patterns consistent with disturbance and the rate of departure of whale sharks from the aggregation was negatively correlated to the number of operator trips. Overall, our analysis of this multi-year data base found no evidence that interactions with tourists affected the likelihood of whale shark re-encounters and that instead, physical and biological environmental factors had a far greater influence on whale shark visitation rates. Our approach provides a template for assessing the effects of ecotourism interactions and environmental factors on the visitation patterns of marine megafauna over multiple years.     

Disproportionate participation by age/sex classes in aggressive interactions between long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and human tourists at Padangtegal monkey forest, Bali, Indonesia

We observed 420 aggressive interactions between tourists and Macaca fascicularis at the Padangtegal Wanara Wana Temple forest site in Bali, Indonesia, during the months of June and July 2001. The data collected included patterns of aggression, presence or absence of food, and demographic information on resident macaques and human visitors. Analyses of the interactions suggest that macaques respond differentially to humans according to the age/sex classes involved. Additionally, adult and subadult male macaques participated in more aggressive behaviors than expected, while adult female macaques and immatures participated in such behaviors less than expected. These variations in interaction patterns between macaques and tourists may have substantial implications for management issues and the potential for pathogen transmission.     

Las Islas de los Changos (the Monkey Islands): the economic impact of ecotourism in the region of Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico

This study evaluates the popularity and economic impact of Las Islas de los Changos (the Monkey Islands) as an ecotourism site on Lake Catemaco in the Los Tuxtlas region of Veracruz, Mexico. Two small island colonies of exotic primates, stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides), have proved to be highly beneficial for the local economy as the main attraction for tourists in this region. From July 1991 to June 1992, data were collected on the number of tourists who took boat trips to visit the primates, and the amount of money spent on tours to the islands. The data suggest that at least 28,470 passengers visit these primate troops annually and spend approximately 88,970 U.S. dollars (USD). Follow-up questionnaires during July 1997 to June 2000 to hotelkeepers and tourist boat operators identified the Monkey Islands as the primary destination for tourists to this region. A comparison of the net income obtained by local ecotourism operators with wages earned through other types of employment in the Los Tuxtlas region, such as working in natural reserves, agriculture, or renting grazing land for cattle, show the relative importance of Las Islas de Los Changos in sustaining the local economy.     

Interactions between visitors and Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Shou‐Shan Nature Park,Taiwan

Ecotourism involving feeding wildlife has raised public attention and is a controversial issue, especially concerning nonhuman primates. Between July 2002 and April 2005, the behavior of monkeys and tourists was collected through scan samplings, focal samplings and behavior samplings at the Shou‐Shan Nature Park located in Taiwan's second largest city—Kaohsiung. In addition, the number of tourists and monkeys was counted in different hours and places within the park. Four hundred visitors were interviewed using a questionnaire to gather data on sex, age, purpose and frequency of visit to the park. The number of tourists was significantly higher during weekends than in weekdays in all locations. Humans dominated in the initiation of interspecies interactions—the overall ratio of human‐initiated and monkey‐initiated interactions was 2.44:1. Human–monkey conflicts accounted for only 16.4% of the total interactions (n=2,166), and adult human males and adult male macaques participated in higher rates than other age/sex groups in these conflicts. Visitors showed more affiliative behavior (15.9%) than agonistic behavior (8%) toward the macaques. In response to visitors' threat or attack, the Formosan macaques mostly showed submissive behavior with bared teeth, squealed or ran away to avoid confrontation (69.1%)—only few responded with counteraggression (18.7%). This study for the first time provided evidence that food provisioning increased both the frequency and duration of aggression among Formosan macaques (P<0.001). During food provisioning, the average frequency and the duration of agonistic events of macaques were more than 4 times higher compared with those without food provisioning. The average frequency of food provision by tourists was 0.73 times/hr—more than twice the incident that monkeys grabbed the food from tourists (0.34 times/hr). If people refrain from feeding monkeys and destroying the city park's natural vegetation, monkeys can be used to educate public about nature conservation in an urban setting. Am. J. Primatol. 71:214–222, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

游客和居民视角下武夷山市生态系统文化服务感知比较研究

生态系统文化服务(CES)的核心是人与自然之间的情感连接,利益相关者视角下的参与式制图是感知与保护热点文化服务地区的有效方法。采用参与式制图与访谈、问卷相结合的方式调查了游客和居民2类群体对武夷山市CES的感知情况;利用空间分析、热点分析和相关性分析比较分析了游客和居民CES的感知差异特征、影响因素及其空间分布格局。结果表明：(1)除了居民月收入对感知有影响外,游客和居民对武夷山市CES认知基本不受人口学特征(性别、年龄、职业和文化程度)的影响(P>0.05);(2)居民的CES价值人均支付保护意愿较游客高。文化遗产、游憩与生态旅游、教育、美学价值是游客和居民都重视的4类子文化服务。游客对文化遗产价值服务的支付意愿最高,而居民则对教育价值服务支付意愿最高。(3)居民对CES价值感知分布空间范围较广,几乎涵盖了武夷山市大部分乡镇;而游客则相对集中,主要位于旅游点密集区域,对其他地区的感知程度较低。CES价值冷热感知程度与旅游点分布呈现相同的空间分布格局,游客和居民对CES价值热点区的感知强度从南向北逐渐降低。(4)从不同文化服务类型权衡/协同关系上看,除了“精神与宗教价值”和“游憩...     

Implications of Tourist–Macaque Interactions for Disease Transmission

During wildlife tourism, proximity or actual contact between people and animals may lead to a significant risk of anthropozoonotic disease transmission. In this paper, we use social network analysis, disease simulation modelling and data on animal health and behaviour to investigate such risks at a site in Morocco, where tourists come to see wild Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Measures of individual macaques’ network centrality—an index of the strength and distribution of their social relationships and thus potentially their ability to spread disease—did not show clear and consistent relationships with their time spent in close proximity to, or rate of interacting with, tourists. Disease simulation modelling indicated that while higher-ranked animals had a significantly greater ability to spread disease within the group, in absolute terms there was little difference in the size of outbreaks that different individuals were predicted to cause. We observed a high rate of physical contact and close proximity between humans and macaques, including during three periods when the macaques were coughing and sneezing heavily, highlighting the potential risk of disease transmission. We recommend that general disease prevention strategies, such as those aimed at reducing opportunities for contact between tourists and macaques, should be adopted.     

Qualitative Assessment of Macaque Tourist Sites in Padangtegal,Bali, Indonesia,and the Upper Rock Nature Reserve,Gibraltar

Human tourists share space with, touch, feed, and otherwise interact with Macaca at multiple locations. Across Asia and stretching to Gibraltar and Northern Africa, macaques form a substantial tourist attraction as their ranges become increasingly coincident with human use zones. Residing in or as tourist attractions, macaques frequently generate economic benefits to local humans and compete with them for habitat and specific resources. In addition, health conflicts may emerge from increased overlap and interactions between humans and macaques. There is only a handful of studies on the impact, structure, context, and cultural ecology of macaque tourist sites. We provide a general overview of 2 macaque tourist sites, one in Padangtegal, Bali, Indonesia and one in Gibraltar. Qualitative assessment reveals variability in behavioral, ecological, economic, and politically relevant facets of macaque tourism. Specifically, differences in aggression during interactions, potential health dangers, economic factors, and local human perceptions between Padangtegal and Gibraltar suggest that qualitative assessments can assist in our construction of broader models and conceptualizations of the interaction context.     

Quantitative calculation of eco-tourist's landscape perception: Strength,and spatial variation within ecotourism destination

Landscape perception is usually described through questionnaires according to the visitors' response. So it is difficult to describe the spatial variation of landscape perception, and the landscape perception factor is rarely involved in the ecotourism planning. In this paper, the authors propose a calculation method for the eco-tourists' perception degree on ecotourism destination according to landscapes' quality and quantity based on raster and grid data, which is very different to the angle of the tourists. The method includes a series of impact factors such as the landscape resource type, landscape resource grade, landscape visual range and its best viewing distance and orientation, ecological perception sensitive area etc. This calculation method can quantitatively describe ecotourists' perception degree at any location in the ecotourism destination, so it can also be used to identify the spatial variation of visitors' perception on landscapes. A case study is done, which is in Qixiagu scenic region, Wu'an national geological park in China. Based on Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and high-resolution satellite images, the authors build the virtual 3D landscape for the region. Using the tools of view-shed analysis, spatial overlay analysis, buffer and other methods on the GIS platform, eco-tourists' perception degree is calculated. The result shows that the value of perception degree varied from one location to another. Regions with higher perception value will be the gathering areas of eco-tourists, so the spatial differences for landscape perceptions should be taken into full consideration during the process of ecotourism destination planning.     

基于旅行费用法的衢州市柯城区“一村万树”工程生态旅游服务价值评估

生态旅游服务价值作为生态系统生产总值（Gross Ecosystem Product，GEP）的重要组成部分，是生态产品价值实现的重要途径。以衢州市柯城区"一村万树"实施区为研究区域，采用国际上普遍认可的旅行费用区间法（Travel Cost Interval Analysis，TCIA）进行了问卷调查，开展了生态旅游服务的价值核算；同时基于计量经济学原理构建了游客随机效用模型（Random Utility Model，RUM），探究了不同自然地理属性对游客生态旅游选址决策的影响。结果表明：（1）2018年"一村万树"实施区的生态旅游服务总价值约19.29亿元，单位面积生态旅游价值量为8.37万元/hm²；（2）2018年"一村万树"实施区的游客人均游憩价值为713.89元，只占整个柯城区人均游憩价值（1204.58元）的59.3%，说明其还有较大的生态产品价值实现提升空间；（3）柯城区游客人均游憩价值远高于当地文化旅游局提供的621.80元的旅游人均消费支出，说明游客时间成本和消费者剩余蕴含了丰富的潜在价值，需要在评估时予以考虑；（4）随机效用模型结果显示，目的地旅行费用与游客访问呈负相关，森林和湿地面积均与游客访问呈正相关，且湿地的相对贡献远高于森林。研究结果对"一村万树"实施区有针对性地进行生态保护、管理和开发具有指导意义，对提高GEP核算的准确性和探索生态产品价值实现的机制具有借鉴意义。     

Intergroup variation in stable isotope ratios reflects anthropogenic impact on the Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of Gibraltar

Interactions with humans impact many aspects of behavior and ecology in nonhuman primates. Because of the complexities of the human–nonhuman primate interface, methods are needed to quantify the effects of anthropogenic interactions, including their intensity and differential impacts between nonhuman primate groups. Stable isotopes can be used to quickly and economically assess intergroup dietary variation, and provide a framework for the development of specific hypotheses about anthropogenic impact. This study uses stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis to examine intraspecific variation in diet between five groups of Barbary macaques, Macaca sylvanus, in the Upper Rock Nature Reserve, Gibraltar. Analysis of hair from 135 macaques showed significant differences in δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values between a group with minimal tourist contact and groups that were main tourist attractions. Because we observed no overt physiological or substantial behavioral differences between the groups, feeding ecology is the most likely cause of any differences in stable isotope ratios. Haphazard provisioning by tourists and Gibraltarians is a likely source of dietary variation between groups. Stable isotope analysis and observational data facilitate a deeper understanding of the feeding ecology of the Barbary macaques relevant to the role of an anthropogenic ecology for the species.