海南南湾猕猴种群增长的研究

对海南南湾猕猴１９６５～１９９４年间的种群动态和雌性猴生命表的研究表明,该种群年均增长率为９．７％,１９８７年后种群增长率和繁殖率有所下降,猴群中非成年猴比例已不足５０％。半驯化雌性猴的逐年存活率到１７岁仍达０．５８,通过对存活曲线和寿命期望曲线的分析,南湾雌猴寿命可达３３～３８岁。婴猴死亡率较低、成年猴死亡率较高,存活曲线属Ⅰ形即凸形。研究表明静态生命表编制方法不适于灵长类,在建立标准化存活曲线时应考虑种群综合死亡系数。猕猴通过存活率、繁殖率、群体结构变化等社群调节机制达到种群平衡。对南湾猕猴近年内每年可捕捉利用１００～１５０只左右,１０岁以上的猴应占５０％以上,在不影响种群遗传多样性水平上,可适当多捕一些成年雄猴。     

日本‘猴灾’的形成与管理策略的研究进展——对中国的启迪

日本是分布有野生灵长类动物的发达国家,面临着与中国相似的猴灾威胁.借鉴日本对猴灾管理方面的技术和研究,有利于推动中国在相关领域的研究和提高野生动物管理水平.为此本文简述了日本猴灾出现的经纬,分析了猴灾出现的环境、社会背景,并介绍了日本在猴灾防除技术和管理策略方面的研究进展.猴灾防除技术可以分为设置物理壁障和心理壁障两大部分:设置物理壁障包括利用电网、围网等方式防止猴群进入农田,设置心理壁障包括利用爆音器、爆竹、狗、超声波、味嗅觉厌恶等方式防止猴群进入农田.另外利用改变土地利用、人工避孕和捕捉猴群的方式也可以减少猴灾发生.文中详细分析了这些防除技术的优缺点和在应用时需要注意的问题.在猴灾管理方面,作者提出了理论层面的管理模式和行政层面的管理方式,并建议加强人与野生动物共存的管理方式.     

非人灵长类和解行为的研究方法与内容

对近年来有关非人灵长类和解行为的研究方法和内容进行了综述。和解行为在非人灵长类中普遍存在,并且有特定的行为模式,要证明它的存在需做匹配观察。分析表明,在潜在合作伙伴中,亲缘关系较近、统治风格缓和、等级距离接近的个体之间,以及一方携带婴儿的雌性个体与其它个体之间,其和解倾向较高,反之和解倾向较低。攻击强度与和解倾向无关,和解行为的发起者因种而异。     

Population ecology of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) at Nanwan Nature Reserve,Hainan, China

Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) at the Nanwan peninsula of Hainan Island, China, have been observed in the field for 25 years, and have been studied intensively for eight years, beginning in 1981. There were about 115 monkeys in 5 natural groups when the Nanwan Reserve was founded in 1965. From 1965 to 1984, the number of groups increased from 5 to 19, and the total population increased from 115 to 930 individuals, an annual population increase of 12.7%. From 1984 to 1987, the population continued a slower rate of increase (8.9%) to approximately 1200 monkeys in 20 groups. The home ranges of each monkey group at Nanwan varied from 0.16 to 0.72 km², with a mean and standard deviation of 0.37 ± 0.18. The size of the home range of the rhesus was affected by the quality of vegetation and rhesus population density. The average birth rate per year was 77.8 ± 13.9%, varying from 53.8% to 100% since 1978. From 1978, the birth rates of two food provisioned groups were higher in alternate years (x? = 91.7%) and lower in intervening years (x? = 68.8%; P = <0.01). A minority (26.5%) of females have given birth at 4 years of age, most at 5 years. The sex ratio of newborns in any one year varied from 0.3 to 3.5 males to females, with a mean and standard error of 1.09 ± 0.37 males to females.     

Social relationships between adult male and immature rhesus macaques

Social relationships of adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were studied over a period of 14 months. Sixteen focal males were chosen from a single group in the Cayo Santiago colony, Puerto Rico. Immatures were defined as infants, yearlings and 2-year-olds. There was a tendency for males to spend more time in proximity to immatures in the birth seasons than in the mating season. Time spent in proximity to immatures was correlated with male dominance rank. Several male-immature dyads had persistent relationships and nine were apparent throughout the study period. Most of the latter involved the top-ranking males. There were no consistent effects of sex or rank of the immature on the distribution of persistent relationships. In almost all male-immature dyads the immature was primarily responsible for maintaining proximity. Two ways were found in which immatures could benefit from these relationships. Protection and agonistic aiding of immatures by adult males were rare, but occurred exclusively in dyads with persistent relationships. In addition, immatures apparently gained greater access to food resources as a result of their relationships with adult males. There was no clear evidence of adult males benefiting from these relationships.     

Affiliative and submissive communication in rhesus macaques

This study analyzed the occurrence of selected facial expressions, gestures, and postures, in relation to sex and rank of sender and receiver, context, and responses elicited in a large multi-male multi-female group of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) living in captivity. The group was observed for 100 hr during the mating and the birth season. Data were collected with the behavior sampling method. The bared-teeth display and the hindquarter presentation were the most prominent signals in the rhesus submissive and affiliative repertoire. Both signals were primarily displayed in response to aggression and approaches; bared-teeth in response to approaches from the front, presentation in response to approaches from the rear. Lip-smack had a submissive component like baredteeth and presentation but was more likely to be displayed by approaching individuals and followed by affiliation than these behaviors. The distribution of hip-touch and mount was different from that of bared-teeth, presentation, and lip-smack, these behaviors mostly occurring between males, irrespective of their dominance rank. Other infrequent signals and behavioral sequences were limited to specific male-female and mother-infant interactions.     

Consortships and conceptions in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

A captive group of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) was observed during the breeding season to determine if consortship behavior, rather than promiscuous matings, resulted in higher reproductive success for either partner. The 38 adult females in this group were observed “in consort” with the 5 adult or 4 subadult males on 179 occasions. Most of these consortships were short-term, lasting less than one day. Six females engaged in consortships with one male that spanned more than three days, but the majority of these long-term associations did not result in a pregnancy with that male. The term “consortship” has been traditionally accepted as a specific nonhuman primate mating pattern, but the exact nature of this behavioral pattern and its evolutionary importance have been less clearly understood. Consort behavior could be considered a precursor to a monogamous mating system if long-term exclusive sexual associations resulted in higher reproductive success for the participants. But this study demonstrates that for rhesus macaques, who exhibit both consort behavior and more promiscuous matings, there is no clear reproductive advantage to long-term consortships. In light of the inconsistent use of the term consortship, the possible adaptive significance of an exclusive male-female sexual association for the evolution of human mating patterns needs to be reevaluated.     

Physiological and behavioral effects of social introduction on adult male rhesus macaques

Pair housing of laboratory macaques is widely considered to lead to positive changes in well-being, yet the process of introduction is viewed as potentially stressful and risk-prone. Behavioral and physiological data were collected on eight adult male rhesus macaques before, during, and after the process of introduction, in order to measure the initial stress of introduction as well as long-term changes in well-being. Socially experienced subjects, all implanted with biotelemetry devices, were studied in five successive phases: baseline (singly housed), 1 day each of protected contact and full contact introduction, post-introduction (1-3 weeks after introduction), and settled pairs (> or =20 weeks after introduction). One hundred and seventy-six hours of behavioral data and 672 hr of heart rate data were analyzed. Fecal cortisol was also measured for the baseline, post-introduction, and settled pair phases. All introductions were successful and subjects showed no physiological or behavioral signs of stress, such as increased heart rate, abnormal behavior, or psychological indices of distress (depressive/anxiety-related behavior). Agonism was minimal throughout the introduction process and over the subsequent months; only one wound was incurred over the course of the study. Levels of abnormal behaviors, psychological indices of distress, locomotion, inactivity, and affiliation showed improvements within several weeks after introduction; these changes were still present 5-9 months later for the latter two categories. Heart rates during introduction fell significantly in the settled pair phase, and also varied predictably with time of day. Fecal cortisol levels were lower in settled pairs than in single housing. The fact that reductions in abnormal behavior did not persist over the long term may have been confounded by increasing duration of time spent caged. The results of this study may be of practical use for designing and monitoring social introductions and suggest that managers should not dismiss the feasibility of successful pairing of adult male rhesus macaques.     

Social relationships between adult male and female rhesus macaques: 1. Sexual consortships

The sexual relationships of 15 adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), of one social group in the Cayo Santiago colony, Puerto Rico, were studied during the 1981 mating season. Two criteria were used to determine whether or not a focal male was in consort in a given 20-min observational sample. One hundred and thirty-two consortships were recorded. The distribution and duration of all consortships, and the distribution of those consortships that coincided with the estimated time of conception, were positively correlated with male dominance rank and length of tenure. Correlations with dominance were stronger than those with tenure. Older females had more consortships with focal males than younger females. There was no relationship between female rank and the distribution of consortships. Consortships did not give exclusive access to receptive females although they may do in feral situations. Males were primarily responsible for maintaining proximity in about two thirds of consortships. The four top-ranking males were primarily responsible in all but one of their consortships. Almost all of those in which the female was primarily responsible involved younger, slightly lower-ranking males. This pattern may have resulted from the females being attracted to the latter males although other interpretations are possible. The partner who was primarily responsible for maintaining proximity also tended to be the predominant groomer, supporting the view that grooming plays a role in the maintenance of sexual consortships. Almost a third of consortships were with females who had conceived, suggesting that males could not accurately assess female reproductive state. Consortships maintained by the male were longer than those maintained by the female. Males may try to increase their chances of fertilising a female by prolonging the consortship. High-ranking males may have been more successful at this, resulting in the positive correlation between male dominance rank and consortship duration.     

Costs and benefits of maternal aggression in lactating female rhesus macaques

Data from over 400 hr of observation of mother-infant rhesus macaques indicate that during the first 12 weeks of lactation infants are at risk from other group members and that mothers use aggression as well as restraining to protect them. Maternal aggression was negatively correlated with infant restraining. High-ranking mothers reacted aggressively to individuals handling their infants more than did middle- and low-ranking mothers. Conversely, middle- and low-ranking mothers restrained their infants more than did high-ranking mothers. Maternal aggression did not vary with infant age. Maternal aggression was directed toward a higher proportion of higher-ranking adult females and their immature offspring and was more likely to be followed by counter-aggression than nonmaternal aggression, i.e. aggression not related to interactions involving the infant. Middle-and low-ranking mothers suffered higher costs in terms of retaliation than high-ranking mothers. It is argued that the occurrence and distribution of maternal aggression among species and individuals should depend on the risk posed to infants by conspecifics as well as on the characteristics of the social structure (e.g. degree of asymmetry of agonistic contests) and of the mother (e.g. her dominance rank) which may affect the probability of retaliation.     

Interactions between visitors and Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Shou‐Shan Nature Park,Taiwan

Ecotourism involving feeding wildlife has raised public attention and is a controversial issue, especially concerning nonhuman primates. Between July 2002 and April 2005, the behavior of monkeys and tourists was collected through scan samplings, focal samplings and behavior samplings at the Shou‐Shan Nature Park located in Taiwan's second largest city—Kaohsiung. In addition, the number of tourists and monkeys was counted in different hours and places within the park. Four hundred visitors were interviewed using a questionnaire to gather data on sex, age, purpose and frequency of visit to the park. The number of tourists was significantly higher during weekends than in weekdays in all locations. Humans dominated in the initiation of interspecies interactions—the overall ratio of human‐initiated and monkey‐initiated interactions was 2.44:1. Human–monkey conflicts accounted for only 16.4% of the total interactions (n=2,166), and adult human males and adult male macaques participated in higher rates than other age/sex groups in these conflicts. Visitors showed more affiliative behavior (15.9%) than agonistic behavior (8%) toward the macaques. In response to visitors' threat or attack, the Formosan macaques mostly showed submissive behavior with bared teeth, squealed or ran away to avoid confrontation (69.1%)—only few responded with counteraggression (18.7%). This study for the first time provided evidence that food provisioning increased both the frequency and duration of aggression among Formosan macaques (P<0.001). During food provisioning, the average frequency and the duration of agonistic events of macaques were more than 4 times higher compared with those without food provisioning. The average frequency of food provision by tourists was 0.73 times/hr—more than twice the incident that monkeys grabbed the food from tourists (0.34 times/hr). If people refrain from feeding monkeys and destroying the city park's natural vegetation, monkeys can be used to educate public about nature conservation in an urban setting. Am. J. Primatol. 71:214–222, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Social relationships between adult male and female rhesus macaques: II. non-sexual affiliative behaviour

The social relationships of adult male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Group I of the Cayo Santiago colony were studied over a period of 14 months. Relationships were found in which adult males and sexually mature females were persistently close to one another in nonsexual contexts, both within and across seasons. Males of long tenure and high dominance rank tended to have more female partners, and more persistent relationships, than more recent immigrants of lower rank. Correlations with length of tenure were stronger than those with dominance rank. Closely-related females tended to have persistent relationships with the same male. In most cases the female was primarily responsible for maintaining proximity in non-sexual contexts. Dyads which were persistently within 5 m of each other in the birth season were more likely to form a consortship in the subsequent mating season than those which had a brief relationship. A similar tendency was apparent in the 1 m data but it was not statistically significant. There was no association between persistent proximity during the birth season and the occurrence of long, or multiple consortships, nor with the maintenance of proximity or direction of grooming between consort partners. The pattern of consortships was not closely related to the formation of persistent relationships in the subsequent birth season. Females occasionally received protection from their male partners and, in some cases, spent more time in the feeding corral with them than did other females. Affiliative relationships can be very enduring and may have long-term benefits that were not apparent during the study period.     

安徽野生和自繁恒河猴血液生化指标的测定与分析简

目的 测定人工饲养条件下安徽野生和自繁恒河猴的血液生化指标,并比较分析两种来源的恒河猴,雌、雄猴间以及感染BV阳性与阴性恒河猴生化指标的差异性.方法采用全自动生化分析仪对安徽野生和自繁恒河猴的14个血液生化指标进行测定,并用统计学方法比较了相同性别的野生猴与自繁猴以及感染BV阳性与阴性恒河猴血液生化值的差异性.结果 野生猴与自繁猴雄性的生化指标普遍高于雌性,野生猴碱性磷酸酶、甘油三脂和谷氨酰基转移酶雌雄间差异显著;自繁猴碱性磷酸酶、白蛋白、血清Ca、甘油三脂、肌酐和谷氨酰基转移酶雌雄间差异有显著性.除谷草转氨酶、尿素氮和血清总胆固醇外,感染BV阳性较感染BV阴性的恒河猴所得生化指标高.结论 野生猴与自繁猴,雌雄间猴以及感染BV阳性与阴性猴的血液生化指标有一定的差异性.