Benthic Distribution of Sewage Sludge Indicated by Clostridium perfringens at a Deep-Ocean Dump Site

Clostridium perfringens in sediment samples collected at the Deep Water Municipal Sewage Sludge Disposal Site (also called the 106-Mile Site), off the coast of New Jersey, was enumerated. The counts of C. perfringens found in sediment samples collected within and to the southwest of the 106-Mile Site were significantly elevated (P < 0.01) compared with counts of samples from reference stations of similar depth (2,400 to 2,700 m), topography, and distance from the continental shelf, indicating that the benthic environment was contaminated by sewage dumping at this site. Low counts of C. perfringens in sediment samples collected at stations between the base of the continental shelf and the 106-Mile Site indicated that coastal runoff was not a significant source of contamination. Elevated counts were observed for samples up to 92 km to the southwest, whereas low counts were obtained for samples from stations to the east of the 106-Mile Site. This distribution is consistent with previous model predictions of sludge deposition. In areas heavily impacted by sludge dumping, C. perfringens counts were generally highest in the top 1 cm of sediment and exceeded 9,000 CFU g (dry weight) of sediment^-1. The patterns of C. perfringens dispersal observed in this study have proved useful for selection of heavily impacted areas and control stations for further ecological evaluation by a multidisciplinary research team.     

Near-Bottom Pelagic Bacteria at a Deep-Water Sewage Sludge Disposal Site

The epibenthic bacterial community at deep-ocean sewage sludge disposal site DWD-106, located approximately 106 miles (ca. 196 km) off the coast of New Jersey, was assessed for changes associated with the introduction of large amounts of sewage sludge. Mixed cultures and bacterial isolates obtained from water overlying sediment core samples collected at the deep-water (2,500 m) municipal sewage disposal site were tested for the ability to grow under in situ conditions of temperature and pressure. The responses of cultures collected at a DWD-106 station heavily impacted by sewage sludge were compared with those of samples collected from a station at the same depth which was not contaminated by sewage sludge. Significant differences were observed in the ability of mixed bacterial cultures and isolates from the two sites to grow under deep-sea pressure and temperature conditions. The levels of sludge contamination were established by enumerating Clostridium perfringens, a sewage indicator bacterium, in sediment samples from the two sites. The results of hybridization experiments in which DNAs extracted directly from the water overlying sediment core samples were used indicate that the reference site epibenthic community, the disposal site epibenthic community, and the community in a surface sludge plume share many members. Decreased culturability of reference site mixed cultures in the presence of sewage sludge was observed. Thus, the culturable portions of both the autochthonous and allochthonous bacterial communities at the disposal site may be inhibited in situ, the former by sewage sludge and the latter by high pressure and low temperature.     

Nearshore macrobenthos of northern Kotzebue Sound,Alaska, with reference to local sewage disposal

Macrobenthos of the shallow (<10 m) nearshore marine waters of northern Kotzebue Sound was examined in 2002–2004 to (1) determine nearshore community structure and (2) assess the influence of sewage disposal. A variable number of benthic stations were sampled during three summers, with extensive effort at the disposal zone in 2003. The benthic community structure is similar to other nearshore Arctic locations, and was similar to a previous benthic study done in 1986–1987. The potential of sewage impact was assessed at the request of the community, because sewage is occasionally discharged into the Sound, in volumes of up to 38 million liters, typically through the ice in early spring. Only minimal effects of disposal on the benthos were evident and the effects could not be separated from the impacts of low salinity and relatively high water pigments. Low diversity (H′) and species richness (d) and high biomass characterized stations in the sewage area. Parameters often associated with extreme sewage pollution, particularly hypoxic and/or anoxic conditions and high abundance of opportunistic taxa, were not observed. Local traditional ecological knowledge was solicited throughout the study, and was used to help define the area potentially affected by sewage disposal.     

Occurrence of fecal indicator bacteria in surface waters and the subsurface aquifer in Key Largo, Florida.

Sewage waste disposal facilities in the Florida Keys include septic tanks and individual package plants in place of municipal collection facilities in most locations. In Key Largo, both facilities discharge into the extremely porous Key Largo limestone. To determine whether there was potential contamination of the subsurface aquifer and nearby coastal surface waters by such waste disposal practices, we examined the presence of microbial indicators commonly found in sewage (fecal coliforms, Clostridium perfringens, and enterococci) and aquatic microbial parameters (viral direct counts, bacterial direct counts, chlorophyll a, and marine vibriophage) in injection well effluent, monitoring wells that followed a transect from onshore to offshore, and surface waters above these wells in two separate locations in Key Largo in August 1993 and March 1994. Effluent and waters from onshore shallow monitoring wells (1.8- to 3.7-m depth) contained two or all three of the fecal indicators in all three samples taken, whereas deeper wells (10.7- to 12.2-m depth) at these same sites contained few or none. The presence of fecal indicators was found in two of five nearshore wells (i.e., those that were < or = 1.8 miles [< or = 2.9 km] from shore), whereas offshore wells (> or = 2.1 to 5.7 miles [< or = 3.4 to 9.2 km] from shore) showed little sign of contamination. Indicators were also found in surface waters in a canal in Key Largo and in offshore surface waters in March but not in August. Collectively, these results suggest that fecal contamination of the shallow onshore aquifer, parts of the nearshore aquifer, and certain surface waters has occurred.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

An improved procedure for shipboard enumeration of faecal indicator bacteria in marine sediments from sewage sludge disposal areas

An improved membrane filtration procedure for use on board ship to enumerate Escherichia coli and Group D faecal streptococci in marine sediments is described. Ultrasonication extraction combined with resuscitation of sublethally-injured cells yielded significantly higher counts of E. coli than sediments shaken by hand. Counts of E. coli were also higher on mFC agar (without rosalic acid) after a period of resuscitation on tryptone-soy agar supplemented with 0.1% yeast extract than on a 4% Teepol-lactose medium. Ultrasonication of sediments made no significant difference to counts of Group D faecal streptococci on KF-streptococcus agar. These improved isolation procedures allowed better discrimination of the area affected by sewage sludge at a disposal site off the northeast coast of England.     

An improved procedure for shipboard enumeration of faecal indicator bacteria in marine sediments from sewage sludge disposal areas

An improved membrane filtration procedure for use on board ship to enumerate Escherichia coli and Group D faecal streptococci in marine sediments is described. Ultrasonication extraction combined with resuscitation of sublethally-injured cells yielded significantly higher counts of E. coli than sediments shaken by hand. Counts of E. coli were also higher on mFC agar (without rosalic acid) after a period of resuscitation on tryptone-soy agar supplemented with 0.1% yeast extract than on a 4% Teepol-lactose medium. Ultrasonication of sediments made no significant difference to counts of Group D faecal streptococci on KF-streptococcus agar. These improved isolation procedures allowed better discrimination of the area affected by sewage sludge at a disposal site off the northeast coast of England.     

Effects of sewage disposal into the White Nile on the plankton community

Twenty water samples and 30 plankton samples were taken from the sewage disposal site (El Lamab, south of Khartoum), from 250 m upstream and 250 m downstream during January–March, 1987 and Februar–April, 1988. The water samples were examined for physical and chemical characteristics. Plankton samples were examined for species composition and relative abundance of phytoplankton and zooplankton.At the disposal site, the sewage effluent increased conductivity, nutrients and suspended solids, elevated BOD, and depleted oxygen. The pattern of abundance in the phytoplankton was almost reversed, due to the disappearance of many diatoms, replaced by blue-green algae, and the appearance of Euglenophyceae, found only at the disposal site. Copepods dominated over cladocerans, which are usually dominant under natural conditions. Rotifers, normally less abundant, also flourished at the disposal site. However, these effects were localized: physical, chemical and biological conditions returned to normal 250 m downstream.Dept. of Zoology, Hydrobiological Research Unit, University of Khartoum     

Parasites of flatfish in relation to sewage sludge dumping

Variations in the occurrence of gastrointestinal metazoan parasites in flatfish were examined in relation to sewage sludge dumping at an 'accumulating' and two 'dispersing' dump sites in Scottish coastal waters. The gross disturbance of the benthic communities at the Garroch Head disposal site in the Firth of Clyde and absence of the intermediate hosts of particular parasites was not reflected in the parasite fauna of the long rough dab, Hippoglossoides platessoides . Results indicate that this flatfish host is highly mobile and intermixing within the population masked any localized effects of sludge dumping on parasite transmission at the dump site. The common dab, Limanda limanda , is considered to be relatively static at the St Abb's Head and Bell Rock disposal sites off the Firth of Forth where no evidence of effects of sewage sludge dumping on its metazoan parasite fauna was detected. This is consistent with the results of chemical and biological monitoring of the sites. The value of a parasite-based index of the biological effects of sewage sludge dumping is discussed.     

Horizontal Variation of Bacterioplankton in the Baltic Sea

Variations in the thymidine incorporation rate, bacterial abundance, and mean cell volumes in the surface water (0.5 m) of the Baltic Sea in spring and summer were compared in studies with different spatial scales (570 nautical miles [nmi] [ca. 1056 km], 220 nmi [ca. 407 km], 24 nmi [ca. 44 km], 12 nmi [ca. 22 km], and 200 m). The objective of the comparison was to investigate whether a single sample taken at one sampling point is representative enough for researchers to make generalizations about a larger water area. Bacterioplankton variation was connected more to seasonal characteristics than to the spatial scale of sampling. Variation was greater and more random in spring than in summer. The state variables (bacterial abundance and mean cell volume) varied less than the rate variable (thymidine incorporation). The results suggest that the sampling design for bacterioplankton studies in northern temperate seas should be planned primarily according to the season and that more stress should be put on rate variable measurements than on those of state variables.     

Clostridium perfringens in the Environment

Clostridium perfringens was isolated from samples collected in Puget Sound in the state of Washington and areas considered as possible sources of these organisms to Puget Sound. The distribution of C. perfringens in the total Clostridium population was determined for fish gut contents and sediments collected in highly polluted and less polluted areas, sewage samples, freshwater sediments, and soils. The greatest numbers of C. perfringens were obtained from marine sediments collected near the sewage outfall at West Point. Fewer isolates were made from fish collected from less polluted stations, although the number of C. perfringens remained high in sediments from other Puget Sound stations. The proportion of C. perfringens in the total Clostridium populations varied between 56 and 71% for sewage samples and only 0.4 to 4.1% for freshwater sediments and soil samples. Only 25 C. perfringens isolates out of 137 from fish guts, or 18%, were identifiable serologically and these fell into 12 groups. C. perfringens were fed to fish and the fish were sacrificed after varying lengths of time. The number of C. perfringens increased slightly in the gut during the first 24 h and then the numbers decreased rapidly for the next 120 h.     

Human pathogenic viruses at sewage sludge disposal sites in the Middle Atlantic region

Human enteric viruses were detected in samples of water, crabs, and bottom sediments obtained from two sewage sludge disposal sites in the Atlantic Ocean. Viruses were isolated from sediments 17 months after the cessation of sludge dumping. These findings indicate that, under natural conditions, viruses can survive for a long period of time in the marine environment and that they may present potential public health problems to humans using these resources for food and recreation. The isolation of viruses in the absence of fecal indicator bacteria reinforces previous observations on the inadequacy of these bacteria for predicting the virological quality of water and shellfish.     

Some factors influencing the density of invertebrates near a sewage outfall

The factors influencing the density of benthic and planktonic invertebrates near a sewage outfall on Great Slave Lake in the Canadian subarctic were determined between June 1975 and May 1977. Densities were measured along 3 transects extending 500 m from the outfall and at 3 stations located 0.5–6.0 km from the outfall. Almost all benthic (Chironomus decorus, Procladius denticulatus, Polypedilum nebeculosum, Tanytarsus sp., Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, Pontoporeia afftnis, Pisidium casternatum, Valvata sincera helicoidea) and planktonic (Keratella earlinae, Kellicottia longispina, Synchaeta stylata) species increased in abundance moving towards the sewage discharge point. Multiple regression analyses indicated that the elevated levels of algae and the total amount of food available in the environment had little if any influence on all species. Detritus and associated bacteria were the most important factors affecting densities and were probably the major food source for all species. Low winter oxygen levels (10–60% staturation), water depth and temperature had negligible effect on most species.     

Effects of dredged material disposal on benthic macrofauna near Itajaí Harbour (Santa Catarina,South Brazil)

From July 2006 to November 2007 the effects of sediment disposal on a macrobenthic association were evaluated at the dredged material disposal site, located 3 km northeast of Itajaí Harbour navigation channel. Seven sample sites were chosen, five inside the licensed disposal area and two outside. Five samples were collected from each site with a 0.042 m² Van-Veen grab. Nine sampling campaigns took place, one before, one during, and seven after the disposal operations. Evaluations were carried out through sediment and macrofauna composition analysis. An increase in coarse fractions of sediments was found during the first months, mainly within the licensed disposal area. Sites outside the area kept the same granulometric characteristics. Nested ANOVA showed that abundance, taxa richness and Shannon–Weaver diversity were significantly smaller after the disposal, and recovered the initial mean values after the disposal ends. PERMANOVA showed a high heterogeneity between the sites. It decreased until the fifth month after disposal operations, mainly in the sites inside the licensed area. These sites were characterized by low abundance and high variability among the samples. Eight to 16 months after disposal sites recovered their heterogeneity, indicating less variability among the samples of each site and distinct benthic macrofaunal composition. The high volume and frequency of sediment disposal were the main factors of environmental modifications, since the amount of deposited sediment on the seabed probably exceeded the natural sedimentation rates. The presence of a benthic macrofauna adapted to natural/human disturbances was crucial to the fast recovery verified in the area.     

Human pathogenic viruses at sewage sludge disposal sites in the Middle Atlantic region.

Human enteric viruses were detected in samples of water, crabs, and bottom sediments obtained from two sewage sludge disposal sites in the Atlantic Ocean. Viruses were isolated from sediments 17 months after the cessation of sludge dumping. These findings indicate that, under natural conditions, viruses can survive for a long period of time in the marine environment and that they may present potential public health problems to humans using these resources for food and recreation. The isolation of viruses in the absence of fecal indicator bacteria reinforces previous observations on the inadequacy of these bacteria for predicting the virological quality of water and shellfish.     

Biodiversity of benthic invertebrates and bioprospecting in Icelandic waters

Iceland is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, with an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles that is largely unexplored with respect to chemical constituents of the marine biota. Iceland is a geothermally active area and hosts both hot and cold adapted organisms on land and in the ocean around it. In particular, the confluence of cold and warm water masses and geothermal activity creates a unique marine environment that has not been evaluated for the potential of marine natural product diversity. Marine organisms need to protect themselves from other organisms trying to overgrow, and some need to secure their place on the bottom of the ocean. Unexplored and unique areas such as the hydrothermal vent site at the sea floor in Eyjafjordur are of particular interest. In 1992 a collaborative research programme on collecting and identifying benthic invertebrates around Iceland (BIOICE) was established, with participation of Icelandic and foreign institutes, universities and taxonomists on benthic invertebrates from all over the world. Since the programme started almost 2,000 species have been identified and of those 41 species are new to science. Our recent bioprospecting project is directed towards the first systematic investigation of the marine natural product diversity of benthic invertebrates occurring in Icelandic waters, and their potential for drug-lead discovery in several key therapeutic areas.     

Acanthamoeba pearcei N. Sp. (Protozoa: Amoebida) from Sewage Contaminated Sediments

ABSTRACT. Seabottom sediments from a discontinued Philadelphia-Camden 40-Mile ocean sewage disposal site were cultured for cyst-forming free-living amoebae. Barge delivered wastes were discharged at the site from 1973 until 1980 when the site was closed. One station at the southeast margin of the site was sampled at a depth of approximately 50 m, twice in 1978 and once in 1982, 1983 and 1984. Sediment from the 1978 collection yielded Acanthamoeba polyphaga, Vahlkampfia sp., and an unknown amoeba with stellate endocysts similar to those of A. astronyxis. Trophozoites and cysts of the isolate were typical of those described for the genus Acanthamoeba. Biochemical tests employing enzyme electrophoresis and morphological studies on live and stained specimens showed that the isolate was distinct from other well-described species within the family Acanthamoebidae Sawyer & Griffin, 1975.     

Comparative analysis of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and indicator bacteria during sewage sludge hygienization in various composting processes

AIMS: To evaluate the suitability of Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli and enterococci as indicator organisms for Cryptosporidium and Giardia in treated sludge. METHODS AND RESULTS: Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts, detected and enumerated by direct immunofluorescence microscopy, were compared with counts of indicator bacteria during six different sewage sludge hygienization processes, including closed reactor and open windrow composting, and sludge sanitation by quicklime or peat addition. No statistical correlation existed between the counts of indicator bacteria, Cl. perfringens, E. coli, and enterococci and occurrence of Cryptosporidium or Giardia. In sludge end-products, Giardia cysts were detected more frequently than Cryptosporidium oocysts. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY: Direct analysis is the best method to confirm the presence of (oo)cysts in sludge.     

Field assessment of numerical impacts of coastal sewage disposal on fish larvae relative to natural variability

Sewage disposal in aquatic environments can have significant impacts on assemblages of organisms. There have been few field investigations on effects of sewage disposal on fish larvae. Data on abundances of larvae, current velocities and the size and shape of sewage plumes from point-source shoreline outfalls off Sydney (Australia) indicated that alongshore currents could transport large numbers of fish larvae into plumes, potentially affecting their health. Assemblages of fish larvae in surface sewage plumes differed to those in distant shelf (control) waters, but no such impacts were detected for assemblages in subsurface (20 m depth) waters beneath plumes. No predictable negative or positive numerical responses of fish larvae to sewage disposal were detected. Abundances of fish larvae fluctuated greatly in space and throughout time, and responses appeared to vary between taxa, outfalls and sampling periods. However, the large inherent level of natural spatial and temporal variability in abundances of larvae confounded the detection of possible impacts. Future field investigations need to focus on effects of sewage disposal on the health and condition of fish larvae. Designs for future field-based studies are discussed.     

Assessment of microbial parameters as indicators of viral contamination of aerosol from urban sewage treatment plants

In order to evaluate possible indicators of viral aerosol contamination in sewage treatment plants, a year-long study was carried out on the relationships between the presence of cytopathogenic viruses and the counts of total bacteria, faecal streptococci and somatic coliphages in samples collected at various distances from the aerosol source (aeration tank). The activated sludge plant studied proved to be a significant source of microbe-bearing aerosol with high levels of viral contamination. When the virus was found in sewage, it was also found in the air, at least in the sites closest to the aeration tank. With regard to the possibility of using the chosen parameters as markers of viral contamination, the total bacteria and faecal streptococci counts were generally positively correlated with viral presence, while coliphage counts yielded no analogous relationship.     

Spawning ecology of flannelmouth sucker, Catostomus lattipinnis (Catostomidae), in two small tributaries of the lower Colorado River

We report the first published accounts of spawning behavior and spawning site selection of the flannelmouth sucker in two small tributaries of the lower Colorado River in the Grand Canyon, Arizona. Spawning was observed on 20 March 1992 and from 28 March to 10 April 1993 in the Paria River, and from 16 to 19 March 1993 in Bright Angel Creek. Flannelmouth suckers exhibited promiscuous spawning behavior–individual females were typically paired with two or more males for a given event and sometimes changed partners between events. Multiple egg deposits by different females sometimes occurred at one spawning site. Flannelmouth sucker selected substrates from 16 to 32 mm diameter in both streams. Spawning occurred at depths of 10 to 25 cm in the Paria River and 19 to 41 cm in Bright Angel Creek. Mean column water velocities at spawning locations ranged from 0.15 to 1.0 m sec^-1 in the Paria River and from 0.23 to 0.89 m sec^-1 in Bright Angel Creek. Water temperatures recorded during spawning ranged from 9 to 18° C in the Paria River and 13 to 15° C in Bright Angel Creek. Spawning flannelmouth sucker ascended 9.8 km upstream in the Paria River and 1.25 km in Bright Angel Creek. Spawning females (410–580 mm) were significantly larger than spawning males (385–530 mm) in the Paria River. The mean size of spawning fish in the Paria River was significantly smaller than the entire stock, averaged throughout the study period (380–620 mm). However, fish spawning in 1992–1993 averaged 53 mm larger than fish spawning in the same reach of the Paria River in 1981, indicating a shift in the size structure of this stock.