Interplant communication of tomato plants through underground common mycorrhizal networks

Plants can defend themselves to pathogen and herbivore attack by responding to chemical signals that are emitted by attacked plants. It is well established that such signals can be transferred through the air. In theory, plants can also communicate with each other through underground common mycorrhizal networks (CMNs) that interconnect roots of multiple plants. However, until now research focused on plant-to-plant carbon nutrient movement and there is no evidence that defense signals can be exchanged through such mycorrhizal hyphal networks. Here, we show that CMNs mediate plant-plant communication between healthy plants and pathogen-infected tomato plants (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). After establishment of CMNs with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae between tomato plants, inoculation of 'donor' plants with the pathogen Alternaria solani led to increases in disease resistance and activities of the putative defensive enzymes, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and lipoxygenase in healthy neighbouring 'receiver' plants. The uninfected 'receiver' plants also activated six defence-related genes when CMNs connected 'donor' plants challenged with A. solani. This finding indicates that CMNs may function as a plant-plant underground communication conduit whereby disease resistance and induced defence signals can be transferred between the healthy and pathogen-infected neighbouring plants, suggesting that plants can 'eavesdrop' on defence signals from the pathogen-challenged neighbours through CMNs to activate defences before being attacked themselves.     

Mycorrhizal networks: Mechanisms,ecology and modelling

Mycorrhizal networks, defined as a common mycorrhizal mycelium linking the roots of at least two plants, occur in all major terrestrial ecosystems. This review discusses the recent progress and challenges in our understanding of the characteristics, functions, ecology and models of mycorrhizal networks, with the goal of encouraging future research to improve our understanding of their ecology, adaptability and evolution. We focus on four themes in the recent literature: (1) the physical, physiological and molecular evidence for the existence of mycorrhizal networks, as well as the genetic characteristics and topology of networks in natural ecosystems; (2) the types, amounts and mechanisms of interplant material transfer (including carbon, nutrients, water, defence signals and allelochemicals) in autotrophic, mycoheterotrophic or partial mycoheterotrophic plants, with particular focus on carbon transfer; (3) the influence of mycorrhizal networks on plant establishment, survival and growth, and the implications for community diversity or stability in response to environmental stress; and (4) insights into emerging methods for modelling the spatial configuration and temporal dynamics of mycorrhizal networks, including the inclusion of mycorrhizal networks in conceptual models of complex adaptive systems. We suggest that mycorrhizal networks are fundamental agents of complex adaptive systems (ecosystems) because they provide avenues for feedbacks and cross-scale interactions that lead to self-organization and emergent properties in ecosystems. We have found that research in the genetics of mycorrhizal networks has accelerated rapidly in the past 5 y with increasing resolution and throughput of molecular tools, but there still remains a large gap between understanding genes and understanding the physiology, ecology and evolution of mycorrhizal networks in our changing environment. There is now enormous and exciting potential for mycorrhizal researchers to address these higher level questions and thus inform ecosystem and evolutionary research more broadly.     

Underground signals carried through common mycelial networks warn neighbouring plants of aphid attack

The roots of most land plants are colonised by mycorrhizal fungi that provide mineral nutrients in exchange for carbon. Here, we show that mycorrhizal mycelia can also act as a conduit for signalling between plants, acting as an early warning system for herbivore attack. Insect herbivory causes systemic changes in the production of plant volatiles, particularly methyl salicylate, making bean plants, Vicia faba, repellent to aphids but attractive to aphid enemies such as parasitoids. We demonstrate that these effects can also occur in aphid‐free plants but only when they are connected to aphid‐infested plants via a common mycorrhizal mycelial network. This underground messaging system allows neighbouring plants to invoke herbivore defences before attack. Our findings demonstrate that common mycorrhizal mycelial networks can determine the outcome of multitrophic interactions by communicating information on herbivore attack between plants, thereby influencing the behaviour of both herbivores and their natural enemies.     

Mycorrhizal plants of traditionally managed boreal grasslands in Norway

This paper reports on the mycorrhizal status of 82 plant species growing in traditionally managed grasslands in three different locations in the boreal and boreo-nemoral vegetation zone in the eastern part of Norway. Seventy-four species were found to have arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM). To our knowledge, we report AM for the first time in Achillea ptarmica, Ajuga pyramidalis, Alchemilla glaucescens, Carex brunnescens, Carex pallescens, Crepis praemorsa, Hieracium lactucella, Rumex longifolius, Scorzonera humilis, Trifolium aureum and Trifolium spadiceum. The rare and threatened species Arnica montana, S. humilis, C. praemorsa, Gentianella campestris, Parnassia palustris, T. aureum and T. spadiceum, all confined to grasslands, were found to possess AM fungi.     

丛枝菌根菌丝桥介导的番茄植株根系间抗病信号的传递

菌根菌丝桥是植物间在地下进行物质交流的通道, 但它能否作为植物间地下化学通讯的通道来传递抗病信号则缺乏研究. 本文利用丛枝菌根真菌（AMF）摩西球囊霉在供体与受体番茄植株间建立菌丝桥, 对供体植株接种早疫病病原菌茄链格孢菌, 研究供体与受体番茄植株根系间是否存在抗病信号的传递. 荧光定量PCR检测表明, AMF侵染后的供体番茄植株再接种病原菌, 其根系中苯丙氨酸解氨酶基因（PAL)、脂氧合酶基因（LOX）和几丁质酶基因（PR₃）的转录水平显著高于仅接种病原菌、未接种病原菌和AMF, 以及只接种AMF的番茄植株. 更重要的是, 与供体有菌丝桥连接的受体番茄根系中PAL、LOX和PR₃的基因的表达量也显著高于无菌丝桥连接、菌丝桥连接被阻断以及有菌丝桥连接但供体植物未接种病原菌的处理,3个基因最高转录水平达到无菌丝桥连接对照受体植物的4.2、4.5和3.5倍. 此外, 供体植株根系启动防御反应的时间（18和65 h）比受体（100和140 h）早. 表明病原菌诱导番茄供体根系产生的抗病信号可以通过菌丝桥传递到受体根系.     

Mycorrhizal status of herb-layer plants in a fertilized oak-pine forest

In the years 1986–1988 investigations were carried out on the influence of fertilizers on the mycorrhizal status of herb-layer plants of a mixed oak-pine forest in the Niepolomice Forest (Southern Poland). The site enrichment with N, P, K altered the frequency of mycorrhizal infection in most species investigated and decreased the percentage of colonized root cells. Some species disappear after fertilization (e.g. Vaccinium myrtillus L.). Among the species vigorously expanding after the treatment, mainly nonmycorrhizal plants (e.g. Festuca gigantea (L.) Vill.) were found. Some species (e.g. Milium effusum L.) favourably reacting to mineral fertilization, lost their mycorrhizae.     

Linking implicit and explicit memory: common encoding factors and shared representations

Dissociations between implicit and explicit memory have featured prominently in theories of human memory. However, similarities between the two forms of memory have been less studied. One open question concerns whether implicit and explicit memory share encoding resources. To explore this question, we employed a subsequent memory design in which several novel scenes were repeated once during an fMRI session and explicit memory for the scenes was unexpectedly tested afterward. Subsequently remembered scenes produced more behavioral priming and neural attenuation-two conventional measures of implicit memory-than did subsequently forgotten scenes. Moreover, brain-behavior correlations between these two implicit measures were mediated by subsequent memory. Finally, tonic activity, possibly reflecting the natural time course of attention, was predictive of subsequent memory. These results suggest that implicit and explicit memory are subject to the same encoding factors and can rely on similar perceptual processes and representations.     

Deterministic epidemic models on contact networks: correlations and unbiological terms

The relationship between system-level and subsystem-level master equations is investigated and then utilised for a systematic and potentially automated derivation of the hierarchy of moment equations in a susceptible-infectious-removed (SIR) epidemic model. In the context of epidemics on contact networks we use this to show that the approximate nature of some deterministic models such as mean-field and pair-approximation models can be partly understood by the identification of implicit anomalous terms. These terms describe unbiological processes which can be systematically removed up to and including the nth order by nth order moment closure approximations. These terms lead to a detailed understanding of the correlations in network-based epidemic models and contribute to understanding the connection between individual-level epidemic processes and population-level models. The connection with metapopulation models is also discussed. Our analysis is predominantly made at the individual level where the first and second order moment closure models correspond to what we term the individual-based and pair-based deterministic models, respectively. Matlab code is included as supplementary material for solving these models on transmission networks of arbitrary complexity.     

Nitric oxide: a common antipathogenic factor of plants

In the present study, nitric oxide synthase/nitric oxide (NOS/NO) status was tested in the host plants infected with fungi, bacteria and virus. In each case cytosolic nitric oxide synthase (Cyt-NOS) of diseased plants was inhibited and inhibition was competitive in nature in respect to l-arginine, the substrate for the enzymic activity. Elevation of host nitric oxide (NO) level before infection using nitric oxide (NO) donor protected disease initiation significantly. The nature of enzyme kinetics and the manner of disease protection by nitric oxide donor (NO-donor) was similar in all the three cases of infection. It was concluded that nitric oxide was a common antipathogenic factor of plants.     

丛枝菌根网络对不同喀斯特适生植物生长及氮摄取的影响

丛枝菌根真菌(arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,AMF)能够通过菌丝体在不同的植物个体间形成公用菌根网(Common mycorrhizal networks,CMN)。针对喀斯特生境中不同植物个体间通过CMN调控营养分配和生物性状的问题,本研究选择了喀斯特生境3种不同的适生植物作为研究对象,模拟自然环境构建微生态系。试验设置同位素供体室和受体室,供体隔室种植香樟并进行同位素~(15)N标记,受体隔室种植不同生长型植物香樟、构树和鬼针草;利用20μm(M~+)和0.45μm尼龙网(M~-)对受体隔室进行处理,同位素~(15)N标记供体植物香樟根系,测定受体植物幼苗叶片δ~(15)N值、植株氮摄取量、生物量以及生长性状指标。试验结果表明:(1)M~+处理的3种受体植物叶片δ~(15)N值分别显著高于M~-处理;同时M~+处理显著提高了香樟幼苗地上、地下部分及植株总氮摄取量,构树和鬼针草的氮摄取量在不同处理间差异未达到显著水平。(2)M~+处理显著提高了香樟地上、地下和总生物量,但对构树没有显著影响;M~+处理下香樟幼苗株高、地径及叶面积和鬼针草幼苗株高、地径分别显著高于M~-处理,但构树在M~+和M~-处理间没有显著差异。(3)M~+处理的香樟幼苗根系平均直径、根长,根表面积和根体积分别显著高于M~-处理,但M~+处理的构树幼苗则显著降低。研究表明,微生态系中丛枝菌根网CMN非平衡性地影响了不同植物个体的氮摄取及植物生长性状,CMN更有利于提高与供体植株为同一物种的受体香樟叶片δ~(15)N、植株N摄取量以及促进其生物量积累和苗木根系生长。     

The cohesin complex: sequence homologies, interaction networks and shared motifs

Background  

Cohesin is a macromolecular complex that links sister chromatids together at the metaphase plate during mitosis. The links are formed during DNA replication and destroyed during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. In budding yeast, the 14S cohesin complex comprises at least two classes of SMC (structural maintenance of chromosomes) proteins - Smc1 and Smc3 - and two SCC (sister-chromatid cohesion) proteins - Scc1 and Scc3. The exact function of these proteins is unknown.     

传粉生物学常用术语释译

A list of common terms in pollination biology was compiled from a large body of literature. For terms with existing Chinese translation, we checked and polished their translation; for those yet without translation, we proposed 本文从大量现有中外文献中分类收集整理了传粉生物学中常见的一些术语, 斟酌了已有的中文译名, 对一些未见中文译名的词语本着望文生义的原则进行了试译, 并对一些重要或易于引起歧义的词语进行了相应的阐明和举例。     

Agricultural trade networks and patterns of economic development

International trade networks are manifestations of a complex combination of diverse underlying factors, both natural and social. Here we apply social network analytics to the international trade network of agricultural products to better understand the nature of this network and its relation to patterns of international development. Using a network tool known as triadic analysis we develop triad significance profiles for a series of agricultural commodities traded among countries. Results reveal a novel network "superfamily" combining properties of biological information processing networks and human social networks. To better understand this unique network signature, we examine in more detail the degree and triadic distributions within the trade network by country and commodity. Our results show that countries fall into two very distinct classes based on their triadic frequencies. Roughly 165 countries fall into one class while 18, all highly isolated with respect to international agricultural trade, fall into the other. Only Vietnam stands out as a unique case. Finally, we show that as a country becomes less isolated with respect to number of trading partners, the country's triadic signature follows a predictable trajectory that may correspond to a trajectory of development.     

Mycorrhizal colonization decreases respiration of common bean nodulated root in hydroaeroponic culture

The bean-rhizobia symbiosis allows atmospheric nitrogen fixation through nodule formation. Nevertheless, nodule establishment in Mediterranean areas is subjected to various biotic and abiotic constraints such as phosphorus soils deficiency. This study compares plant-growth response to moderate (75 μmol KH₂PO₄ plant^?1 week^?1) versus severe phosphorus deficiency (30 μmol KH₂PO₄ plant^?1 week^?1) after inoculation with Rhizobium tropici CIAT 899 and Glomus intraradices of four Phaseolus vulgaris lines contrasting in P use efficiency (PUE) for their symbiotic nitrogen fixation (SNF) in hydroaeroponic culture. After 5 weeks of growth under glasshouse conditions, the oxygen consumption related to nitrogen fixation was measured on intact nodulated roots. The obtained results revealed that mycorrhizal colonization decreased the nodulated-roots O₂ consumption of P. vulgaris under both P deficiencies although it increased the growth of all plant organs and the nodulation with a large genotypic variability. Moreover, mycorrhizal colonization was higher under severe P deficiency than under moderate one. In conclusion, the tripartite inoculation improved growth parameters under severe P-deficiency with a decrease in nodulated root O₂ consumption.     

模拟边坡条件下常见护坡植物苗期根系构型特征

植物根系对提高边坡稳定性具有重要作用。采用喷播的方式在侵蚀槽中制备模拟石质边坡,植物生长6个月后采用全根挖掘和Win-RHIZO根系分析仪扫描相结合的方法,研究了模拟边坡条件下11种常见护坡植物苗期的根系构型特征。结果表明：紫花苜蓿根系生物量最大,柠条根系生物量最小,二者主根发达,仅分布在下坡方向。沙打旺、胡枝子、紫穗槐和欧李根系生物量、总根数、总基根数、总根长、总根表面积、总根体积均较大,在上坡方向和下坡方向分布均匀,拓扑指数介于0.53—0.61之间,为叉状分枝结构,根系固土护坡能力较强,可作为边坡生态修复工程的优选植物。根系生物量与根系表面积、根体积呈现显著的线性正相关关系(R²分别为0.68和0.80),拓扑指数与根系长度、根系表面积、总根数、总基根数呈现显著的指数负相关关系(R²分别为0.82、0.68、0.87、0.86),可为植物根系构型研究提供科学依据及理论支撑。     

Mycorrhizal plants and fungi in the fog-free Pacific coastal desert of Chile

The Chilean fog-free Pacific coastal desert, one of the driest desertic regions of the world, is undergoing rapid rates of desertification as a result of intensive agriculture, overgrazing and mining. There is an urgent need to document the mycorrhizal status of Chilean plants, and the role of the symbiosis in rehabilitation and preservation of species diversity. Here we present one of the first reports on the mycorrhizal status of annual and perennial herbs and shrubs from this region. Plants were collected during 1991 when rainfall was close to or above the annual average, providing the opportunity to asses several rare plant species. The plants examined included endemic species and endangered and rare geophytes. More than 90% of 38 species (19 families) were found to form exclusively arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi associations. Six species of mycorrhizal fungi were isolated from the root zones of plants sampled, four of which are undescribed.     

Bringing together emerging and endemic zoonoses surveillance: shared challenges and a common solution

Early detection of disease outbreaks in human and animal populations is crucial to the effective surveillance of emerging infectious diseases. However, there are marked geographical disparities in capacity for early detection of outbreaks, which limit the effectiveness of global surveillance strategies. Linking surveillance approaches for emerging and neglected endemic zoonoses, with a renewed focus on existing disease problems in developing countries, has the potential to overcome several limitations and to achieve additional health benefits. Poor reporting is a major constraint to the surveillance of both emerging and endemic zoonoses, and several important barriers to reporting can be identified: (i) a lack of tangible benefits when reports are made; (ii) a lack of capacity to enforce regulations; (iii) poor communication among communities, institutions and sectors; and (iv) complexities of the international regulatory environment. Redirecting surveillance efforts to focus on endemic zoonoses in developing countries offers a pragmatic approach that overcomes some of these barriers and provides support in regions where surveillance capacity is currently weakest. In addition, this approach addresses immediate health and development problems, and provides an equitable and sustainable mechanism for building the culture of surveillance and the core capacities that are needed for all zoonotic pathogens, including emerging disease threats.