The Relationship Between Taurine and 3-Nitrotyrosine Level of Hepatocytes in Experimental Endotoxemia

It has been proposed that taurine may function as an oxidant in a dose-dependent manner in vivo and in vitro. The present study was carried out to investigate the relationship between taurine concentration and 3-nitrotyrosine level, a stable marker of peroxynitrite action, in hepatocytes of guinea pig in endotoxemia before and after taurine administration. The levels of taurine and 3-nitrotyrosine were measured by HPLC method. In the present study, taurine was low concentration in hepatocytes exposed to endotoxemia. In taurine plus endotoxin treated animals, HPLC analysis showed higher taurine level compared with animals only supplemented with taurine. But 3-nitrotyrosine levels were same in both taurine alone and taurine plus endotoxin groups. In conclusion, taurine is able to prevent the damaging effect of peroxynitrite, at concentration measured in hepatocytes, in our experimental conditions.     

Effect of vitamin A pretreatment on Escherichia coli-induced lipid peroxidation and level of 3-nitrotyrosine in kidney of guinea pig

In the present study, we report the effect of vitamin A (Vit A, retinol palpitate) on kidney lipid peroxidation and 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) levels induced after Escherichia coli administration to guinea pigs. Vit A was administrated intraperitoneally (i.p.) to guinea pigs at a dose 15,000 IU/kg per day for 7 days prior to E. coli injection. On day 8, the animals were injected i.p. with E. coli dosed at 12 ×10⁹ colony forming units per kilogram. Kidneys were collected 6 h after administration of E. coli. Malondialdehyde (MDA) as a lipid peroxidation product, and 3-NT levels were measured by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography. There was a significant increase in MDA and 3-NT levels in lipopolysaccaharide-induced group (p<0.001). 3-NT was not detectable in kidney of normal control animals. However, Vit A administration prior to E. coli injection prevented 3-NT formation but did not prevent the rice in MDA level of kidney (p<0.001). Vit A alone did not alter the MDA level in the kidney of the control group. (Mol Cell Biochem 278: 33–37, 2005)     

The effect of taurine on polymorphonuclear leukocyte functions in endotoxemia

Summary. The aim of the present study was to measure MPO activity in PMN leukocytes after endotoxin administration, and to compare the levels of NO₂ ⁻ competing with taurine for reaction with HOCl. Furthermore we aimed to determine TauCl levels, a product of MPO–H₂O₂–Halide system, and to evaluate anti-inflammatory properties of PMN in endotoxemia. In addition, our second objective was to investigate the effect of taurine, an antioxidant amino acid, on anti-bactericidal and anti-inflammatory functions of PMN after administration of endotoxin together with taurine. All experiments were performed with four groups (control, taurine, endotoxemia, and taurine plus endotoxin) of ten guinea pigs. After endotoxin administration (4 mg/kg), MPO activities increased and taurine levels decreased. Therefore levels of TauCl, NO₂ ^•− increased. We observed the effects of taurine as conflicting. When taurine was administrated alone (300 mg/kg), all of these parameters decreased. Consequently, we suggested that taurine is influential in infected subjects but not on healthy ones as an antioxidative amino acid. In addition, we believe that in vivo effects of taurine may differ from those in vitro depending on its dosage.     

Protective effect of taurine on respiratory burst activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in endotoxemia

Summary. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of endotoxin on PMN leukocyte respiratory burst activity by measuring G6PD, NADPH oxidase and XO activities in guinea pig. In addition, the possible protective role of taurine against endotoxin-mediated PMN leukocyte function was examined. All experiments were performed with four groups (control, taurine, endotoxemia, taurine plus endotoxin) of ten guinea pigs. After the endotoxin was administrated (4 mg/kg) both G6PD and NADPH oxidase activities were significantly reduced compared with the control group. NADPH oxidase activity returned to the control value and G6PD activity also increased but it did not reach the control value. However when taurine was administrated (300 mg/kg) the activity of NADPH oxidase reached the control value; furthermore, G6PD activity also increased but it could not reach to the control value. When taurine was administrated alone, no effect on these enzymes was observed. Following the endotoxin administration, the activity of XO considerably increased. When taurine was administrated together with endotoxine and alone, this activity decreased compared to control value in both conditions. These results indicate that the O₂ ^•− formation in PMN leukocytes after the endotoxin administration is ensured by the catalysis of XO due to the inhibited NADPH oxidase activity. It was observed that taurine has considerable anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. However, conflicting results were obtained when taurine was administrated alone or together with an oxidant agent.     

Effects of IL-18 and IL-10 pre-treatment on the alteration of endogenous cytokines in liver and spleen of mice with experimental endotoxemia

Mechanisms of interleukin-18 (IL-18) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced endotoxemia are not clear; their protective role is being investigated so that they may effectively modulate the host cytokine levels during endotoxemia. The aim of the study was to evaluate protective effects of IL-18 and IL-10 in experimentally induced endotoxemia in mice correlating the changes in tissue anti-oxidant enzymes and circulating cytokines. Liver injury was determined by estimation of serum glutamate oxalate transaminase (SGOT) and serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT), serum nitric oxide (NOx), hepatic anti-oxidant enzyme and cytokine content in LPS (250 microg/kg) induced endotoxemic mice receiving either IL-18 (500 ng/mouse) or IL-10 (600 ng/mouse) treatment. Mice (87% of IL-10 treated and 74% of IL-18 treated) survived when administered prior to LPS challenge. Pre-treatment of mice with either IL-10 or IL-18 followed by LPS, lead to reduction in SGPT and SGOT level, serum NOx, and altered hepatic anti-oxidant enzymes activity and myeloperoxidase activity than the only LPS treated group. Marked reduction in the amounts of LPS-induced hepatic and splenic TNF-u content has been observed after IL-10 pre-treatment. Results suggested that attenuating the induction of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma and subsequent induction of nitric oxide formation in response to LPS may in part account for efficient protection by IL-18 and IL-10 in the reduction of LPS-induced liver injury.     

The anti-inflammatory effect of inhaled nitric oxide on pulmonary inflammation in a swine model

Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is associated with an inflammatory process that leads to lung injury. In this study, we hypothesized that inhaled nitric oxide (INO) possesses the ability to modulate CPB-induced inflammation. Fifteen male pigs were randomly divided into 3 groups: Sham, CPB+LPS (CPB and lipopolysaccharide), and CPB+LPS+INO. INO (20 parts per million) was administered for 24 h after anesthesia. CPB was performed for 90 min, and LPS was infused (1 microg/kg) after CPB. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and blood were collected at T0 (before CPB), at 4 h, and at 24 h. At 24 h, BAL interleukin-8 (IL-8) levels were not increased as expected in the CPB+LPS group compared with the Sham group, but they were reduced significantly in the CPB+LPS+INO group. Cell hypo reactivity observed in the groups receiving LPS also seemed to downregulate endothelial nitric oxide synthase NOS protein expression relative to the Sham group. Nitrite and nitrate (NOx) concentrations were decreased significantly in the groups without INO. Moreover, animals treated with INO showed higher rates of pulmonary apoptosis compared with their respective controls. These results demonstrate that NOx production is reduced after CPB and that INO acts on the inflammatory process by diminishing neutrophils and their major chemoattractant, IL-8. INO also increases cell apoptosis in the lungs under inflammatory conditions, which may explain, in part, how it resolves pulmonary inflammation.     

Lipopolysaccharide-induced liver injury in rats treated with the CYP2E1 inducer pyrazole

Elevated LPS and elevated cytochrome P-450 2E1 (CYP2E1) in liver are two major independent risk factors in alcoholic liver disease. We investigated possible synergistic effects of the two risk factors in causing oxidative stress and liver injury. Sprague-Dawley rats were injected intraperitoneally with pyrazole (inducer of CYP2E1) for 2 days, and then LPS was injected via tail vein. Other rats were treated with pyrazole alone or LPS alone or saline. Eight hours later, blood was collected and livers were excised. Pathological evaluation showed severe inflammatory responses and necroses only in liver sections from rats in the pyrazole plus LPS group; blood transaminase levels were significantly elevated only in the combination group. Activities of caspase-3 and -9 and positive terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling staining were highest in the LPS alone and the LPS plus pyrazole group, with no significant difference between the two groups. Lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyls in liver homogenate as well as in situ superoxide production were maximally elevated in the LPS plus pyrazole group. Levels of nitrite plus nitrate and inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) content were comparably elevated in LPS alone and the LPS plus pyrazole group; however, 3-nitrotyrosine adducts were elevated in the combined group but not the LPS group. It is likely that LPS induction of iNOS, which produces NO, coupled to pyrazole induction of CYP2E1 which produces superoxide, sets up conditions for maximal peroxynitrite formation and production of 3-nitrotyrosine adducts. CYP2E1 activity and content were elevated in the pyrazole and the LPS plus pyrazole groups. Immunohistochemical staining indicated that distribution of CYP2E1 was in agreement with that of necrosis and production of superoxide. These results show that pyrazole treatment enhanced LPS-induced necrosis, not apoptosis. The enhanced liver necrosis appears to involve an increase in oxidative and nitrosative stress generated by the combination of LPS plus elevated CYP2E1 levels.     

Effects of melatonin on 3-nitrotyrosine formation and energy charge ratio in guinea pig kidney in LPS-induced stress

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of Escherichia coli-derived lipopolysaccharide on guinea pig kidney by measuring the energy charge ratio and 3-nitrotyrosine levels. In addition the possible protective role of melatonin against lipopolysaccharide-mediated peroxynitrite formation and energy depletion of kidney was determined. Guinea pigs were either pretreated with melatonin or saline (for the control) followed by intraperitoneal administration of E. coli. Six hours after the administration of E. coli, guinea pig kidney ATP, ADP, AMP and 3-nitrotyrosine levels were measured by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography. There was a significant increase in the formation of 3-nitrotyrosine and decrease in energy charge in the endotoxin-induced group. However melatonin administration prevented 3-nitrotyrosine formation while failing to prevent or restore changes in the energy charge ratio of the kidney.     

The role of taurine added to pulmonary reperfusion solutions in isolated guinea pig lungs

Summary.  An experimental comparative study on isolated guinea pig-lungs has been undertaken to determine the probable beneficial effects of adding taurine to pulmonary reperfusion solutions in lung ischemia-reperfusion. 20 guinea pigs were used. The isolated lungs (n = 10 in each group) previously being perfused by oxygenated Krebs-Henseleit solution were put in normothermic ischemic conditions. After 3 hours of normothermic ischemia the lungs were reperfused (with Krebs-Henseleit solution in the control group, Krebs-Henseleit solution plus taurine 10⁻² M in the experiment group) for 20 minutes. Pulmonary artery pressures, tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) levels were measured before and after the ischemic period and also at the end of reperfusion. Malondialdehyde and glutathione levels of the pefusate were measured before ischemic period and at the end of reperfusion. An electron microscopic analysis was performed on the lung tissues before and after the ischemic period and also at the end of reperfusion. Decreased pulmonary artery pressure, tissue perfusate MDA levels and increased perfusate GSH levels were observed in taurine added group. Electron microscopic evaluation supported our findings indicating preservation of lamellar bodies of type II pneumocytes. It is concluded that taurine may play an important role in protecting tissue against ischemia-reperfusion injury by functioning as an antioxidant. Received May 16, 2001 Accepted September 6, 2001     

Protective effects of luteolin on the venous endothelium

Luteolin is a flavonoid with antioxidant properties already demonstrated in studies related to inflammation, tumor, and cardiovascular processes; however, there are no available information regarding its antioxidant effects at the venous endothelial site. We investigated the effects of luteolin (10, 20, and 50 μmol/L) in cultures of rat venous endothelial cells. Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were analyzed by fluorimetry; 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) residues were evaluated by immunofluorescence, and prostacyclin (PGI₂) release was investigated by colorimetry. Intracellular NO levels were significantly enhanced after 10 min of luteolin incubation, with a parallel decrease in ROS generation. These results were accompanied by a significant reduction in the expression of 3-NT residues and enhanced PGI₂ rates. Therefore, luteolin is effective in reducing ROS thereby improving NO availability in venous endothelial cells. Besides, luteolin-induced decrease in 3-NT residues may correlate with the enhancement in endothelial PGI₂ bioavailability. These findings suggest the future application of this flavonoid as a protective agent by improving endothelial function in several circulatory disorders related to venous insufficiency.

     

Comparative metabolism and taurine-depleting effects of guanidinoethanesulfonate in cats,mice, and guinea pigs

Guanidinoethanesulfonate (GES) is a competitive inhibitor of taurine transport. The ability of GES to deplete taurine content has been compared in three species representing omnivores, carnivores, and herbivores. Rats and mice given drinking water containing 1% GES showed large decreases in taurine concentration in all examined organs within a few days. These species do not metabolize GES. The substance was without effect on guinea pigs, a species that does not depend on diet for taurine, even after 20 days of treatment. However, guinea pigs metabolize a fraction of the GES administered to taurine. Cats responded to GES by increasing their urinary excretion of taurine 10-fold, while simultaneously maintaining normal concentrations in body organs. [1,2-³H]GES given orally to cats was extensively metabolized to radioactive taurine. It therefore appears that the cat and to a lesser extent, the guinea pig, have transamidinase or amidinohydrolase activity for which GES is a substrate. However, this substance rapidly depletes taurine levels in the omnivores studied, and promises to be useful in further investigations on taurine in these species.     

Nitric oxide-cGMP pathway is involved in endotoxin-induced contractile dysfunction in rat hearts.

The mechanisms by which endotoxemia causes cardiac depression have not been fully elucidated. The present study examined the involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in this pathology. Rats were infused with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline, and the plasma and myocardial NO(2)(-) and NO(3)(-) (NOx) concentrations were measured before or 3, 6, and 24 h after treatment. The hearts were then immediately isolated and mounted in a Langendorff apparatus, and left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) was determined before biochemical analysis of the myocardium. LPS injection effected the expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in the myocardium, a marked increase in plasma and myocardial NOx levels, and a significant decline in LVDP compared with saline controls. The LPS-induced NO production and concomitant cardiac depression were most pronounced 6 h after LPS injection and were accompanied by a significant increase in myocardial cGMP content. Myocardial ATP levels were not significantly altered after LPS injection. Significant negative correlation was observed between LVDP and myocardial cGMP content, as well as between LVDP and plasma NOx levels. Aminoguanidine, an inhibitor of iNOS, significantly attenuated the LPS-induced NOx production and contractile dysfunction. Furthermore, 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one, an inhibitor of soluble guanylate cyclase, significantly decreased myocardial cGMP content and attenuated the contractile depression, although aminoguanidine or 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one was not able to completely reverse myocardial dysfunction. Our data suggest that endotoxin-induced contractile dysfunction in rat hearts is associated with NO production by myocardial iNOS and a concomitant increase in myocardial cGMP.     

Selective quantification of free 3-nitrotyrosine in exhaled breath condensate in asthma using gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry.

Reactive nitrogen species can cause oxidative modifications of certain amino acid residues in proteins, notably the modification of tyrosine to 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), which is a potentially useful marker of oxidative stress. Since lung diseases are associated with airway inflammation and oxidative stress, quantification of 3-NT in exhaled breath condensate (EBC) may provide a non-invasive means for monitoring ongoing inflammatory processes. 3-NT-like immunoreactivity has previously been detected in EBC, but no definitive evidence for the presence of 3-NT in EBC is available. Here, a method based on gas chromatography/negative ion chemical ionization/tandem mass spectrometry was established for the quantification of free 3-NT in EBC. The detection limit was 0.56 pM (corresponding to 3.0 amol microl(-1) sample injected) and the method was found to give linear results (r2 > 0.999) in the concentration range of 0-5.0 nM. The coefficient of variation (CV) for within-day and between-day precision were 11 and 12%, respectively. No artifactual nitration was observed during sample processing. The method was applied to study subjects with asthma (n = 8), and healthy subjects (n = 10), but only a slight non-significant increase in 3-NT levels was found in the former group (median [interquartile ranges]; 99 [50-547] amol s(-1) vs. 75 [35-147] amol s(-1)). No correlation with exhaled nitric oxide (NO), pulmonary function or EBC levels of total protein was observed. The 3-NT levels were much lower compared to previously reported levels, based on immunochemical measurements. The method does not allow the simultaneous quantification of tyrosine in samples.     

Role of peroxynitrite in secondary oxidative damage after spinal cord injury

Peroxynitrite (PON, ONOO(-)), formed by nitric oxide synthase-generated nitric oxide radical ( NO) and superoxide radical (O(2) (-)), is a crucial player in post-traumatic oxidative damage. In the present study, we determined the spatial and temporal characteristics of PON-derived oxidative damage after a moderate contusion injury in rats. Our results showed that 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), a specific marker for PON, rapidly accumulated at early time points (1 and 3 h) and a significant increase compared with sham rats was sustained to 1 week after injury. Additionally, there was a coincident and maintained increase in the levels of protein oxidation-related protein carbonyl and lipid peroxidation-derived 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). The peak increases of 3-NT and 4-HNE were observed at 24 h post-injury. In our immunohistochemical results, the co-localization of 3-NT and 4-HNE results indicates that PON is involved in lipid peroxidative as well as protein nitrative damage. One of the consequences of oxidative damage is an exacerbation of intracellular calcium overload, which activates the cysteine protease calpain leading to the degradation of several cellular targets including cytoskeletal protein (alpha-spectrin). Western blot analysis of alpha-spectrin breakdown products showed that the 145-kDa fragments of alpha-spectrin, which are specifically generated by calpain, were significantly increased as soon as 1 h following injury although the peak increase did not occur until 72 h post-injury. The later activation of calpain is most likely linked to PON-mediated secondary oxidative impairment of calcium homeostasis. Scavengers of PON, or its derived free radical species, may provide an improved antioxidant neuroprotective approach for the treatment of post-traumatic oxidative damage in the injured spinal cord.     

Putative antihyperpyretic factor induced by LPS in spleen of guinea pigs

We reported previously that the onset of LPS-induced fever, irrespective of its route of administration, is temporally correlated with the appearance of LPS in the liver and that splenectomy significantly increases both the febrile response to LPS and the uptake of LPS by Kupffer cells (KC). To further evaluate the role of the spleen in LPS fever production, we ligated the splenic vein and, 7 and 30 days later, monitored the core temperature changes over 6 h after intraperitoneal (ip) injection of LPS (2 microg/kg). Both the febrile response and the uptake of LPS by KC were significantly augmented. Like splenectomy, splenic vein ligation (SVL) increased the febrile response and LPS uptake by KC until the collateral circulation developed, suggesting that the spleen may normally contribute an inhibitory factor that limits KC uptake of LPS and thus affects the febrile response. Subsequently, to verify the presence of this factor, we prepared splenic extracts from guinea pigs pretreated with LPS (8 microg/kg ip) or pyrogen-free saline, homogenized and ultrafiltered them, and injected them intravenously into splenectomized (Splex) guinea pigs pretreated with LPS (8 microg/kg ip). The results confirmed our presumption that the splenic extract from LPS-treated guinea pigs inhibits the exaggerated febrile response and the LPS uptake by the liver of Splex guinea pigs, indicating the presence of a putative splenic inhibitory factor, confirming the participation of the spleen in LPS-induced fever, and suggesting the existence of a novel antihyperpyretic mechanism. Preliminary data indicate that this factor is a lipid.     

Evaluation of oxidative stress, 3-Nitrotyrosine,and HMGB-1 levels in patients with wet type Age-Related Macular Degeneration

BackgroundThis study aims to compare serum HMGB-1, 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), TAS, TOS, and OSI levels in Wettype Age-Related Macular Degeneration (wAMD) patients and healthy controls to determine the correlation of these parameters with each other.MethodsThirty patients with Wet-type Age-Related Macular Degeneration (wAMD) and 27 healthy adults, as controls were enrolled in the study. We determined the TAS and TOS levels in serum samples of both groups using commercial kits on a microplate reader. Serum HMGB-1 and 3-NT levels were measured with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method.ResultsHMGB-1 levels were significantly higher in the patient group (137.51 pg/mL, p=0.001), while there was no difference between the two groups in serum 3-NT levels (p=0.428). A statistically significant difference found in the levels of TOS and OSI (p=0.001 and p=0.045, respectively) between the patients and controls, however, no significant difference was observed between the groups in terms of TAS levels (p=0.228).ConclusionsOxidative stress and HMGB-1 levels were increased in wAMD patients and enhanced oxidative stress may be associated with increased tissue necrosis and inflammation. Thus administration of antioxidant treatment in addition to routine therapy should be considered in wAMD.     

Nitric oxide modulates glutathione synthesis during endotoxemia

Nitric oxide is known to modulate intracellular glutathione levels, but the relationship between nitric oxide synthesis and glutathione metabolism during endotoxemia is unknown. The present study was designed to examine the effects of increased nitric oxide formation on hepatic glutathione synthesis and antioxidant defense in endotoxemic mice. Our results demonstrate that hepatic glutathione synthesis is decreased for 24 h following injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Administration of the cysteine precursor, L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OTZ), failed to normalize hepatic glutathione concentration, and suggests that decreased γ-glutamylcysteine ligase activity is primarily responsible for the decrease in hepatic glutathione levels during endotoxemia. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis prevented the endotoxin-induced changes in hepatic and plasma glutathione status and up-regulated liver glutathione and cysteine synthesis pathways at the level of gene expression. Furthermore, whereas the activity of glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase decreased during endotoxemia, both of these changes were prevented by inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis. In conclusion, increased nitric oxide synthesis during endotoxemia causes marked changes in glutathione flux and defenses against oxidative stress in the liver.     

Peroxynitrite plays a role in methamphetamine-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity: evidence from mice lacking neuronal nitric oxide synthase gene or overexpressing copper-zinc superoxide dismutase

The use of methamphetamine (METH) leads to neurotoxic effects in mammals. These neurotoxic effects appear to be related to the production of free radicals. To assess the role of peroxynitrite in METH-induced dopaminergic, we investigated the production of 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) in the mouse striatum. The levels of 3-NT increased in the striatum of wild-type mice treated with multiple doses of METH (4 x 10 mg/kg, 2 h interval) as compared with the controls. However, no significant production of 3-NT was observed either in the striata of neuronal nitric oxide synthase knockout mice (nNOS -/-) or copper-zinc superoxide dismutase overexpressed transgenic mice (SOD-Tg) treated with similar doses of METH. The dopaminergic damage induced by METH treatment was also attenuated in nNOS-/- or SOD-Tg mice. These data further confirm that METH causes its neurotoxic effects via the production of peroxynitrite.     

Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase lowers the cochlear damage by lipopolysaccharide in guinea pigs

Endotoxin-treated cochleas of the guinea pig were examined electrophysiologically and immunohistochemically concerning the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS/NOS II). One mg of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 5 mg/ml) or mixed solution of 1 mg of LPS plus 1 mg of N^G-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME, 5 mg/ml) (L-NAME/LPS) was injected into the middle ear of guinea pigs transtympanically. The electrocochleograms were measured prior to, immediately and 48 h after the injection. Immunohistological studies for iNOS followed after fixation, embedding and sectioning of the temporal bones.

The threshold and amplitude of the compound action potential (CAP) became significantly worse in the LPS treated group. In contrast, the changes of the threshold and amplitude of CAP were decreased in the L-NAME/LPS group. iNOS was expressed in the stria vascularis, the spiral ligament, the organ of Corti and the spiral ganglion in the LPS group. These immunore-activities in the L-NAME/LPS group were less intense than that in the LPS group. These results indicate that LPS has an ototoxic effect on the cochlea and that this effect could be mediated by iNOS produced high nitric oxide under inflammatory conditions.     

Protective Effects of Flavonoids Against Oxidative Stress Induced by Simulated Microgravity in SH-SY5Y Cells

Many lines of evidence suggest that microgravity results in increased oxidative stress in the nervous system. In order to protect neuronal cells from oxidative damage induced by microgravity, we selected some flavonoids that might prevent oxidative stress because of their antioxidant activities. Among the 20 flavonoids we examined, we found that isorhamnetin and luteolin had the best protective effects against H₂O₂ or SIN-1-induced cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. Using a clinostat to simulate microgravity, we found that isorhamnetin and luteolin treatment protected SH-SY5Y cells by preventing microgravity-induced increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO) and 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) levels, and a decrease in antioxidant power (AP). Moreover, isorhamnetin and luteolin treatment downregulated the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and oxidative stress was significantly inhibited by an iNOS inhibitor in SH-SY5Y cells exposed to simulated microgravity (SMG). These results indicate that isorhamnetin and luteolin could protect against microgravity-induced oxidative stress in neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells by inhibiting the ROS-NO pathway. These two flavonoids may have potential for preventing oxidative stress induced by space flight or microgravity.