Tree-ring growth of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in two stands under different silvicultural systems in central Italy

A preliminary analysis was made of growth trends in two silver fir forests in the Apennines in central Italy. The forests are closely located but were managed differently in the past. The aim was to verify the climatic variation over time, the influence of extreme events on radial growth and the role of silvicultural systems in defining growth response. The two forests have distinct structures due to differing past silvicultural management. The Camaldoli Forest, containing one-storeyed, evenaged, pure silver fir stands, was essentially managed in the past for wood production and featured high plantation density, low to moderate thinning, and clear cutting every 80–100 years. The La Verna Forest includes multi-layered, unevenaged stands that are mixed in with beech and other broadleaves. Increment cores were collected from aged dominant and healthy trees in the two forests. Climatic data were taken from the Camaldoli station and covers the period 1885–1994. All the analysed dendroecological parameters displayed similar patterns and indicated suitable site conditions for the silver fir. Silvicultural systems played an important role in defining growth pattern and rate. In the evenaged system there were higher growth rates and a greater number of pointer years, whereas there were lower growth rates and long, homogeneous development stages in the semi-natural conditions of La Verna. A rising growth trend recorded in the last three decades in both series could be explained by the consistent extension of the growing season due to a significant increase of mean spring and autumn temperatures. No correlation was found with precipitation while significant correlations were found between tree ring growth and February, April and August temperatures. Preliminary results indicated that the silvicultural system does not bias, but just enhances the ability of the species to record the effects of disturbing factors.     

Local seed dispersal in European silver fir (Abies alba Mill.): lessons learned from a seed trap experiment

Seed dispersal is an important factor influencing the genetic structure of forest tree populations. Knowledge about the seed shadow is important to assess the ability of tree species to colonize new and disturbed habitats or to respond to environmental change by migrating to more suitable habitats. In a seed trap experiment, we investigated local seed dispersal distances of silver fir seeds (Abies alba Mill.) by explicitly identifying mother trees. For this purpose, we matched microsatellite genotypes of maternal tissues of seeds with the genotypes of adult trees in the studied stand. Furthermore, we analysed the effect of morphological traits on dispersal distance, and we assessed the number of contributing mother trees and compared the seed density of the closed forest-stand with the adjacent blowdown. Based on 674 seeds collected in a grid of 37 seed traps, a significant decline in seed density was observed from within the forest to the forest blowdown area >40 m from the forest edge. A median dispersal distance of 31 m was determined for filled seeds based on direct assignment of seeds to their mother trees. This was higher than that determined in the previous studies using different methods. Dispersal distance was negatively correlated to seed-weight, but this was partially compensated for by the length of seed wings. A very large number of unassigned maternal genotypes (435) suggested that dispersal distance might have been underestimated. Lessons for future studies were: to perform a full genotypic inventory of adult trees in a defined perimeter, to increase the number of microsatellite markers and to study several sites over a period of several years.     

Monoterpene hydrocarbon contents of the resin from seeds of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.)

Summary Using gas-chromatographic methods, the variability of the contents of monoterpene hydrocarbons (-pinene, -pinene, ₃carene and limonene) in the resin of silver fir seeds (Abies alba Mill.) was studied. Resin cavities were characterized according to their position on the seed surface. It was estabilished that the terpene content of the resin of cavities localized on the abaxialadaxial surfaces of the seed differs significantly, creating a gradient of resin composition around the circumference of the seed. The differences between various resin cavities of single seeds were greater than the differences between different seeds of a single cone and between seeds of various cones on a single tree. An accurate definition of the resin cavity location on the seeds appears to be a fundamental condition for the collection of a sample representing the resin composition of individual trees. Resin biosynthesis in the course of organogenesis and the control of terpene contents in the resin of various locations on the seed and the cone are discussed.     

Geographic variability of monoterpenes from cortex of Abies concolor

Cortical oleoresin from 351 Abies concolor trees collected in 43 localities was analyzed for composition of its monoterpenoid fraction. The populations could be segregated into three geographic groups: (1) Northern and Central California (equivalent to var. Iowiana), producing camphene and 3-carene in trace to small amounts; (2) Southern California (the Cuyamaca race), producing camphene in trace to small and 3-carene in larger amounts; and (3) states to the east of California (equivalent to var. concolor) producing camphene and 3-carene in larger amounts. California populations from the southernmost Sierra Nevada and Northern Transversal Ranges were found to be chemically intermediate between var. Iowiana and var. concolor. Statistical analysis indicated the presence of additional second-order segregations in each of the four population groups, The results are explained on the basis of existing paleobotanical records.     

Timing of photoperiodic competency causes phenological mismatch in balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera L.)

Plant phenology is expected to be sensitive to climate warming. In boreal trees, spring flush is primarily temperature driven, whereas height growth cessation and autumn leaf senescence are predominantly controlled by photoperiod. Cuttings of 525 genotypes from the full range of balsam poplar were planted into two common gardens (Vancouver and Indian Head, Canada) at similar latitudes, but with differing winter temperatures and growing seasons. There was clinal variation in spring and, particularly, summer and fall phenology. Bud flush and, despite milder climate, bud set and leaf drop were earlier at Vancouver than at Indian Head by 44, 28 and 7 d, respectively. Although newly flushed growth is insensitive to photoperiod, many genotypes at both sites became competent before the summer solstice. At Vancouver, high‐latitude genotypes set dormant terminal buds in mid‐spring. Most other genotypes grew until midsummer or set bud temporarily and then experienced a second flush. In both gardens and in a growth chamber experiment, earlier bud set was associated with reduced height growth and higher root/shoot ratios. Shoots attained competency ～5 weeks after flushing, which would normally prevent dormancy induction before the solstice, but may be insufficient if spring advances by more than a few weeks.     

Temporal and spatial root development of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis L.)

Row crops are often inefficient in utilizing soil resources. One reason for this appears to be inefficient rooting of the available soil volume. Five experiments were performed to study the temporal and spatial root development of cauliflower (cv. Plana). The crop was grown with 60 cm between rows, and root development was followed in minirhizotrons placed under the crop rows, 15 cm, and 30 cm from the crop rows. Soil was sampled and analyzed for nitrate content at the final harvest and once during growth. In two of the experiments N fertilizer rate was varied and in two of the other experiments two cultivars were compared (cv. Plana and Siria).The rooting depth of cauliflower was found to be linearly related to temperature sum, with a growth rate of 1.02 mm day^-1 °C^-1. Depending on duration of growth this leads to rooting depths at harvest of 85–115 cm. Soil analysis showed that the cauliflower was able to utilize soil nitrogen down to at least 100 cm.With Plana differences in root growth between row and interrow soil were only observed during early growth, but with Siria this difference was maintained until harvest. However, at harvest both cultivars had depleted row and interrow soil nitrate equally efficient. Nitrogen fertilizer did not affect overall root development significantly.The branching frequency of actively branching roots was increased in all soil layers from about 6 to 10 branches cm^-1 by increasing N fertilizer additions from 130 to 290 kg N ha^-1. Increasing N supply increased the number of actively branching roots in the topsoil and reduced it in the subsoil.The average growth rate of the roots was always highest in the newly rooted soil layers, but fell during time. At 74 days after planting very few roots were growing in the upper 60 cm of the soil whereas 70% of the root tips observed in the 80–100 cm soil layer were actively growing. Within each soil layer there was a large variation in growth rate of individual root tips.     

土壤增温对杉木幼苗细根生长量及形态特征的影响

为了揭示杉木人工林对全球变暖的地下响应,在福建省三明市陈大国有林场开展杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)幼苗土壤增温试验,采用内生长环法探讨增温实验开始后第2年(2015年1月、7月取样)和第3年(2016年1月、7月取样)杉木幼苗细根生长量和形态特征(比根长,SRL;比表面积,SRA;组织密度,RTD)的变化。结果表明:(1)随着苗木的生长,土壤增温对细根生长量的影响趋势是先抑制,再无显著影响,最后促进。(2)土壤增温对细根形态特征的影响在不同取样时间有差异:土壤增温对7月份(夏季)取样的细根SRL或SRA有显著促进作用,对1月份(冬季)取样的细根SRL、SRA均无显著影响。(3)土壤增温对第二、第三次取样的1—2 mm细根RTD有促进作用。表明土壤增温对杉木幼苗细根生长量的影响与苗木生长阶段有关;同时苗木可通过细根形态的调整(增大SRL和RTD)以适应土壤增温引起的土壤资源变化和环境胁迫,维持自身的生长。     

Growth stimulation in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) by Trichoderma

Trichoderma species are commonly used as biological control agents against phytopathogenic fungi and some strains are able to produce metabolites that enhance plant growth. In the current study we evaluated the production of potential growth-promoting metabolites, rhizosphere competence and endophytism for 101 isolates of Trichoderma from Colombia, and assessed the relationship of these factors to the enhancement of early stages of growth on bean seedlings. Twenty percent of these Trichoderma strains were able to produce soluble forms of phosphate from phosphoric rock. Only 8% of the assessed strains showed consistent ability to produce siderophores to convert ferric iron to soluble forms by chelation. Sixty percent of isolates produced indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or auxin analogues. The production of any of these metabolites was a characteristic of specific strains, as the ability to produce these metabolites varied greatly within species. Moreover, the production of these substances did not correlate with enhanced growth on bean seedlings, measured as the combined increase in length of roots and aerial parts in the V3 stage of growth. Seven Trichoderma isolates significantly improved the growth of bean seedlings. However, metabolite production varied widely in these seven strains, and some isolates did not produce any of the assessed growth-promoting metabolites. Results indicated that growth was enhanced in the presence of rhizosphere competent and endophytic strains of Trichoderma, and these characteristics were strain-specific and not characteristic for species.     

Belowground Interactions in a Vine (Vitis vinifera L.)-tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea Shreb.) Intercropping System: Water Relations and Growth

In the Mediterranean area, the introduction of cover crops in vineyards is hampered by the risk of severe competition for water. Belowground interactions are still not very clear in this perennial-herbaceous association. This work was aimed at characterizing the development of the root systems of associated crops and the soil water dynamics. It also investigated whether water competition could be the cause of vine vigour and yield reductions. Experiments were conducted in a 4-year-old association (vine – tall fescue) and in a weed controlled vineyard. Water transfers in the soil were estimated on the basis of the soil water potential and soil hydrodynamic properties. The vine root system was concentrated in the soil under the row, whereas the intercrop highly colonized a soil compartment under the inter-row to a depth of approximately 1 m. Despite this spatial complementarity in root distribution, intercropping reduced the amount of soil water available for the vine crop. The low soil water content reduced soil water conductivity thereby limiting water transfers, despite a significant gradient in the soil water potential. This conductivity did not differ significantly between treatments but the intercrop enhanced the infiltration of winter rainwater, probably by limiting surface runoff. There was temporal complementarity in this association since the period of intense water uptake by the intercrop occurred earlier than noted for the vine under bare soil conditions. Nevertheless, the competition for water was limited by better refilling of the soil water profile during winter in the intercropped treatment. The intercrop clearly interacted with the vine and decreased its vegetative vigor. Since predawn leaf water potential and stomatal conductance did not differ among treatments, mechanism(s) other than competition for water (e.g. nutrient competition, allelopathy) may be responsible.     

Caffeic acid inhibits in vitro rooting in mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] hypocotyls by inducing oxidative stress

Caffeic acid (CA), which is ubiquitously present in plants, is a potent phytotoxin affecting plant growth and physiology. The aim of our study was to investigate whether CA-induced inhibition of adventitious root formation (ARF) in mung bean {Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek [Phaseolus aureus Roxb.]} involves the induction of conventional stress responses. The effect of CA (0–1000 μM) on ARF in mung bean was determined by measuring the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in terms of malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) content, root oxidizability and changes in levels of antioxidant enzymes. Our results show that CA significantly enhanced MDA content, indicating severe lipid peroxidation, and increased H₂O₂ accumulation and root oxidizability in the lower rooted hypocotylar region (LRHR) of mung bean, thereby inducing oxidative stress and cellular damage. In response to CA, there was a significant upregulation in the activities of scavenging enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase, catalase and glutathione reductase, in LRHRs of mung bean. Based on these results, we conclude that CA inhibits ARF in mung bean hypocotyls by inducing ROS-generated oxidative stress and upregulating the activities of antioxidant enzymes.     

水稻短根突变体Osksr5的遗传分析和基因定位

水稻根系对其生长、发育及产量等起着至关重要的作用。该研究从甲基磺酸乙酯（ethyl methane sulfonate,EMS）诱变的籼稻Kasalath突变体库中筛选到1个根系变短的突变体,命名为Osksr5（Oryza sativa kasalath short root 5）,该突变体植株具体表现为主根、不定根和侧根都明显变短,不定根的数目相对减少,株高与野生型相比也明显矮小。遗传分析结果表明,该突变性状由1对隐性核基因控制。利用图位克隆技术将OsKSR5基因定位在第1染色体的STS（sequence tagged site）分子标记33027k和33471k,物理距离约为444 kb。对OsKSR5基因的定位为进一步克隆该基因和阐明水稻根系发育的分子机理奠定了基础。     

水稻短根突变体Osksr6的遗传分析和基因定位

该研究对从甲基磺酸乙酯(EMS)诱变的水稻突变体库中筛选到的一个短根突变体Osksr6(Oryza sativa kasalath short root 6)进行了表型鉴定、遗传分析与基因定位。结果表明:(1)生长7d的突变体Osksr6与野生型相比,株高与不定根数量差异不明显,但主根变短61.98%、不定根变短46.42%,侧根的发生与根毛的伸长也受不同程度抑制;成熟期的Osksr6分蘖数明显减少,总穗长与结实率均较野生型差。(2)遗传分析结果显示,突变体Osksr6的短根性状受1对隐性基因控制。(3)利用图位克隆技术,将突变基因OsKSR6定位于3号染色体InDel标记28420k和28880k之间,物理距离约460kb,该区间没有已报道的与根系发育相关的基因。该研究为进一步研究水稻根系生长的分子机理奠定了基础。     

Growth and longevity of Mytilus edulis (L.) from northeast Europe

The growth of mussels, Mytilus edulis (L.), was studied in most of the northeastern part of their distribution. The growth, longevity and maximal size of molluscs from 24 wild populations and one cultured population located in the White Sea and the southeast part of the Barents Sea were compared. The 25 studied populations were combined in six clusters. The maximal longevity and the size of the mussels varied between 7 and 18 years and 25.5 and 77.7 mm, respectively. The geographical location of the population within the studied region did not affect either maximal longevity or maximal size, or the growth rate of mussels. However, these parameters were influenced by local habitat conditions, primarily connected with the position within intertidal and subtidal zones. Animals inhabiting the intertidal zone were characterized by relatively low growth performance, a short life span and a small size. The longest life span was typical for deep subtidal mussels, whereas the highest growth rate was recorded in the cultured population and in the upper subtidal habitats. Growth patterns of Mytilus edulis in the subarctic White and the Arctic southeast Barents seas are similar to those reported from other parts of the area of distribution. Therefore, growth was mostly determined by local environmental factors, including those related to vertical zonation, rather than by latitude/longitude and related temperature effects.     

In vivo and in vitro effects of copper and cadmium on the plasma membrane H+-ATPase from cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) and maize (Zea mays L.) roots

The plasmalemma vesicles isolated from cucumber and maize roots were used to study the effect of Cu²⁺ and Cd²⁺ on the hydrolytic and proton pumping activities of ATPase. In vivo application of metal ions to the plant growth solutions resulted in stimulation of the proton transport in maize. In cucumber roots the action of metals was not the same: cadmium stimulated the H⁺ transport through plasmalemma whereas Cu²⁺ almost completely inhibited it. Copper ions decreased the hydrolytic activity of H⁺-ATPase in cucumber, without any effect on this activity in membranes isolated from maize roots. The effect of cadmium on the hydrolytic activities was opposite: ATP-hydrolysis activity in plasmalemma was not altered in cucumber, whereas in maize its stimulation was observed. The amount of accumulated metals was not the main reason of different influence of metals on H⁺-ATPase activity in tested plants. In in vitro experiments Cu²⁺ inhibited H⁺ transport in the cucumber, to a higher degree than Cd²⁺ and both metals did not change this H⁺-ATPase activity of plasmalemma isolated from corn roots. Cu²⁺ added into the incubation medium reduced the hydrolytic activity of ATPase in the plasma membrane isolated from cucumber as well as from corn roots. Cd²⁺ diminished the hydrolytic activity of ATPase in cucumber, and no effect of Cd²⁺ in the plasmalemma isolated from corn roots was found. Our results indicated different in vitro and in vivo action of both metals on H⁺-ATPase and different response of this enzyme to Cu²⁺ and Cd²⁺ in maize and cucumber.     

Physiological performance of silver-fir (Abies alba Mill.) populations under contrasting climates near the south-western distribution limit of the species

Silver-fir (Abies alba Mill.) populations located at the south side of the main Pyrenean axis and Pre-Pyrenees constitute the south-western distribution limit of the species and, therefore, may be responding more noticeably to climate change than those in the centre of the range. The increasing aridity detected in the Pyrenees during the 20th century should affect more negatively the physiological performance of the southernmost silver-fir stand growing under more xeric conditions in comparison with stands growing within the main distribution area under mesic conditions. To evaluate the climatic influence on the performance of silver fir near its distribution limit, we studied several physiological and growth variables in shoots and needles from two silver fir populations located in nearby but climatically contrasting sites: Paco Ezpela (site E) and Gamueta (site G). Site E showed a stronger Mediterranean influence than site G, i.e. the former site was characterized by higher temperatures and leaf-to-air water vapour pressure difference and lower precipitation in summer than the latter site. Silver firs from site E showed lower values of primary and secondary growth, needle length, stomatal conductance, net photosynthesis and photosystem II (PSII) efficiency than individuals from site G. The reduction in net photosynthesis could be ascribed to a low CO₂ availability and to a lower PSII efficiency. We conclude that the physiological differences found between both sites were caused by the more xeric conditions of site E as compared with the more mesic environment in site G. The predicted increase of severe droughts in the southern Pyrenees might cause a decrease in photosynthesis and growth in those silver-fir stands located near the ecological limit of the species.     

A procedure for mini-preparations of genomic DNA from needles of silver fir (Abies alba mill.)

We have adapted a procedure for the isolation of genomic DNA from needles of silver fir (Abies alba) to meet the requirements for large-scale analysis of the population genetics of forest trees. Our modifications permit the entire procedure to be carried out in Eppendorf tubes, which greatly minimizes time, plant material, and the amounts of chemicals. DNA is recovered with a mean efficiency of 80 μg/g needles, is suitable for restriction by the common endonucleases, and serves as a substrate for PCR.     

东北天然针阔混交林凋落物磷素空间异质性及其影响因素

以天然云冷杉(Picea jezoensis var.microsperma(Lindl.) W.C.ChengL.K.Fu and Abies nephrolepis(Trautv.) Maxim.)针阔混交林为研究对象,基于4块1 hm~2固定样地林分调查数据和等距离网格布点取样的400个半分解层凋落物样品的养分测定数据,采用地统计学方法,分析凋落物磷浓度、归还量及利用效率的空间格局特征及其影响因素。结果表明:4块样地凋落物磷浓度均值为1.26 g/kg,归还量均值为24.57 kg/hm~2,利用效率均值为841.74,均表现为中等强度变异,具有明显的空间异质性,且同一样地,变异程度呈现出磷归还量磷利用效率磷浓度。凋落物磷浓度、归还量(样地III和IV结构比大于75%,其空间异质性主要由随机效应引起,不适合进行空间插值)和利用效率主要受结构性因素影响,具有较高的空间自相关性。同一样地磷利用效率的空间异质性较磷浓度及归还量低,各样地磷浓度、归还量和利用效率空间自相关范围分别为9.9—40.5 m、11.9—52.9 m和8.1—39.3 m。同一样地磷利用效率的分形维数高于磷浓度,空间格局较磷浓度复杂,磷浓度空间依赖性更强,具有更好的结构性。凋落物磷浓度、归还量(除样地III和IV)和利用效率呈现条带状和斑块状梯度性分布,且磷浓度和利用效率的空间分布格局相似。凋落物磷浓度、归还量和利用效率受到郁闭度、物种数和植物多样性等多种因子的影响。