Cu,Zn-Superoxide Dismutase Gene Dosage and Cell Resistance to Oxidative Stress: A Review

It is well established that superoxide dismutase (SOD) is the irresplaceable enzyme for aerobic lifestyle. Our understanding of its role has made strides recently as the result of gene transfection approach. Available data on consequences of Cu,Zn-SOD gene transfection in cell resistance to oxygen toxicity are reviewed. There are data that increasing only Cu,Zn-SOD can be toxic, and the balance between Cu,Zn-SOD and peroxide-removing enzymes is supposed to be of prime importance in the antioxidant defence. Role of Cu,Zn-SOD deregulation in carcinogenesis is discussed.     

蜡样芽胞杆菌M22铜锌超氧化物歧化酶基因的克隆及表达

采用PCR技术 ,从蜡样芽胞杆菌M2 2基因组DNA扩增到长 132 0bp的基因片段 .该片段含编码 179个氨基酸残基的开放阅读框 ,推定蛋白序列与报道的BacillusanthracisCu ,Zn SOD序列有96 %同源性 ,其中N端 16个氨基酸残基推定为信号肽序列 .将Cu ,Zn SOD编码区插入载体pET 2 2b(+ )构建表达载体pET 2 2b sodC ,转化E .coliBL2 1(DE3) ,IPTG诱导融合蛋白表达 .SDS PAGE显示 ,融合蛋白表观分子质量约 2 4kD ,占菌体裂解液中总蛋白的 2 1 3% .将此表达载体转入SOD缺陷型大肠杆菌PN132 ,赋予了该菌株对paraquat的抗性 .NBT光抑制法测定SOD活性显示 ,与PN132无SOD活性相比 ,重组子在IPTG诱导前SOD活性极低 (1 79U/mg) ,诱导后活性高达 6 9 76U/mg .非变性电泳结果显示 ,该酶活性不同程度地受到 5mmol LH2 O2 和 5mmol LKCN的抑制     

Purification and Characterization of Cu,Zn Superoxide Dismutase from Ark Shell Scapharca broughtonii

A superoxide dismutase has been purified to apparent homogeneity from the muscular tissue of the ark shell, Scapharca broughtonii, by ammonium sulfate fractionation, and consecutive column chromatographies using DEAE-Sephadex and Sephadex G-100. This enzyme has a molecular weight of 71,700 and is composed of two identical subunits of M _r 35,800, which are joined by noncovalent interactions. The purified enzyme was stable over the range of pH 5.0-10.0 at 4°C for 24 h and at temperatures below 45°C. Cyanide at 0.1 and 1 mM inhibited the activity of the superoxide dismutase 56 and 100%, but 5 mM azide caused 8% inhibition. The optical spectrum of this enzyme had a maximum at 265 nm, and the amino acid composition of the enzyme was similar to that of the other Cu, Zn superoxide dismutases except for the contents of threonine, serine, proline, and leucine. Atomic absorption spectroscopy showed that this enzyme has approximately 2 atoms of Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺ per mole of enzyme. These results indicate that the purified enzyme from ark shell, Scapharca broughtonii, is a Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase.     

Replacement of Buried Cysteine from Zebrafish Cu/Zn Superoxide Dismutase and Enhancement of Its Stability via Site-Directed Mutagenesis

Zebrafish Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (ZSOD1) has one free cysteine (Cys-7) in a first β-strand with lower thermostability. We predicted the stability would be increased with single-point mutation at 70°C via the I-Mutant 2.0 server, and generated a mutant SOD with replacement of the free Cys to Ala (ZSODC7A) by site-directed mutagenesis. The mutant was expressed and purified from the Escherichia coli strain AD494(DE3)pLysS and the yield was 2 mg from 0.4 L of culture. The ZSODC7A was heated at 90°C. In a time-dependent assay, the time interval for 50% inactivation was 32 min, and its thermal inactivation rate constant K _d was 2 × 10⁻² min⁻¹. The mutant was still activated in broad pH range (2.3–12), and had only a moderate effect under sodium dodecyl sulfate treatment. The calculated specific activity of the mutant was 3980 U/mg, twice that of wild-type ZSOD1. In addition, we soaked fish larva with equal enzyme units of either ZSOD1 or ZSODC7A for 2 h, and then stressed them with 100 ppm of paraquat to induce oxidative injury. The survival rate was significant. Chuian-Fu Ken and Chi-Tsai Lin contributed equally to this article.     

Purification,N-Terminal Amino Acid Sequence and Partial Characterization of A Cu,Zn Superoxide Dismutase From the Pathogenic Fungus Aspergillusfumiga Tus

A superoxide dismutase (SOD) has been purified to homogeneity from the fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus using a combination of cell homogenization, isoelectric focusing and gel filtration FPLC. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified enzyme demonstrated substantial homology to known Cu, Zn superoxide dismutases for a range of organisms, including Neurospora crassa and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The enzyme subunit has a pl of 5.9, a relative molecular mass of 19 kDa and a spectral absorbance maximum of 550nm. The non reduced enzyme has a relative molecular mass of 95 kDa. The enzyme remained active after prolonged incubation at 70°C and was pH insensitive in the range 7-11. Potassium cyanide and diethyldithiocarbamate, known Cu, Zn SOD inhibitors, caused inhibition of the purified enzyme at working concentrations of 0.25 mM, whilst sodium azide and o-phenanthroline demonstrated inhibition at higher concentrations (10-30 mM). SOD activity was also detectable in culture filtrate of A. fumigatus. This enzyme may have a potential role as a virulence factor in the avoidance of neutrophil and phagocyte oxidative burst killing mechanisms.     

Purification, N-Terminal Amino Acid Sequence and Partial Characterization of A Cu,Zn Superoxide Dismutase From the Pathogenic Fungus Aspergillusfumiga Tus

A superoxide dismutase (SOD) has been purified to homogeneity from the fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus using a combination of cell homogenization, isoelectric focusing and gel filtration FPLC. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified enzyme demonstrated substantial homology to known Cu, Zn superoxide dismutases for a range of organisms, including Neurospora crassa and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The enzyme subunit has a pl of 5.9, a relative molecular mass of 19 kDa and a spectral absorbance maximum of 550nm. The non reduced enzyme has a relative molecular mass of 95 kDa. The enzyme remained active after prolonged incubation at 70°C and was pH insensitive in the range 7-11. Potassium cyanide and diethyldithiocarbamate, known Cu, Zn SOD inhibitors, caused inhibition of the purified enzyme at working concentrations of 0.25 mM, whilst sodium azide and o-phenanthroline demonstrated inhibition at higher concentrations (10-30 mM). SOD activity was also detectable in culture filtrate of A. fumigatus. This enzyme may have a potential role as a virulence factor in the avoidance of neutrophil and phagocyte oxidative burst killing mechanisms.     

Purification of a fully metal-depleted Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase from copper-deficient rat liver

A copper-deprived form of the enzyme Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase was identifiedin the liver of rats made copper-deficient by dietary restriction. In homogenates ofsuch livers Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase presents a dis-homogeneous electrophoreticprofile with respect to the native enzyme. When rat liver extracts were treated withexogenous copper an electrophoretic pattern resembling the native one was observed.Enzyme purified by chromatography on DE-52 resin shows two major components, onecorresponding to genuine, native enzyme and another one, eluting at higher ionicstrength. The latter protein (Fraction II) consists of several isoforms which showthe same characteristics of the native superoxide dismutase as far as immunoreactivityand molecular weight are concerned, but with decreased contents of copper and zinc. Itscatalytic constant, referring to copper content, was 15 times lower than that obtainedfor the native enzyme. Moreover, the catalytic power of purified Fraction II was notregained upon incubation with copper. The occurrence of a superoxide dismutase voidof metals confirms the hypothesis that this protein plays a dual physiological role:in metal metabolism and in superoxide anion dismutation.     

Purification,Characterization, and Molecular Cloning of a Thermostable Superoxide Dismutase from Thermoascus aurantiacus

A thermostable superoxide dismutase [(SOD) EC 1.15.1.1] from a Thermoascus aurantiacus var. levisporus was purified to sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) homogeneity by a series of column chromatographies. The molecular mass of a single band of the enzyme was estimated to be 16.8 kDa by SDS–PAGE. The molecular mass was estimated to be 33.2 kDa by gel filtration on Sephacryl S-100, indicating that the enzyme was composed of two identical subunits of 16.8 kDa each. N-terminal amino acid sequencing (seven residues) yielded VKAVAVL. Using RACE-PCR, a Cu, Zn-SOD gene was cloned from T. aurantiacus var. levisporus. The sequence was 705 bp and contained a 468 bp ORF encoding a Cu, Zn-SOD of 155 amino acid residues.     

Purification of an Iron-Containing Superoxide Dismutase from A Citrus Plant,Citrus Limonum R

A cyanide-insensitive superoxide dismutase was purified to apparent homogeneity from lemon leaves (Citrus limonum R). The enzyme was isolated from leaf extracts by ammonium sulfate salting-out. and ion-exchange, gel filtration and hydroxylapatite column chromatography. The purified Fe-SOD had a specific activity of about 1.500 U/mg and represents approximately 1.6% of the total soluble protein in lemon leaf extracts. A molecular weight of 47,500 was determined for the enzyme. Analytical gel electro-focusing of the purified preparation revealed the presence of two isozymes with pl values of 5.13 and 4.98. Metal analysis showed the presence of I g-atom of iron and 0.5g-atom of manganese per mol of enzyme. The visible and UV absorption spectra of the Citrus enzyme were similar to those reported for other iron-containing SODS from different origins. The significance of the presence of Fe-SOD in higher plants is briefly discussed.     

Catalase and Superoxide Dismutase: Distribution, Properties, and Physiological Role in Cells of Strict Anaerobes

This review considers the distribution of the main enzymes of antioxidative defense, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase, in various groups of strictly anaerobic microorganisms: bacteria of the genus Clostridium, Bacteroides, sulfate-reducing and acetogenic bacteria, methanogenic archaea, etc. Molecular and biochemical properties of purified Fe-containing SODs, cambialistic SODs, and heme catalases are presented. The physiological role and origin of the enzymes of antioxidative defense in strict anaerobes are discussed. Physiological responses (induction of SOD and catalase) to factors provoking oxidative stress in the cells of strict anaerobes able to maintain viability under aerobic conditions are also considered.     

A Novel Metalloproteinase,Almelysin, from a Marine Bacterium,Alteromonas sp. No. 3696: Purification and Characterization

We have discovered a novel metalloproteinase, which has high activity at low temperatures, from the culture supernatant of a marine bacterium. The strain was identified as Alteromonas sp. No. 3696. The metalloproteinase, named almelysin, was purified to homogeneity from the cultured supernatant at 10°C by two column chromatographies. About 20 mg of purified almelysin was obtained from 18.4 liters of the culture supernatant. The molecular mass of almelysin was estimated to be 28 kDa by SDS–PAGE and the isoelectric point was 4.3. The optimum pH for activity of almelysin was pH 8.5–9.0 and 6.5 using casein and (7-methoxycoumarin-4-yl)acetyl(MOCAc)-Pro-Leu-Gly-Leu-(N³-[2,4-dinitrophenyl]-L-2,3-di-aminopropionyl)[A₂pr(Dnp)]-Ala-Arg-NH₂ as substrates, respectively. Almelysin was stable between pH 7.5–8.0 and below 40°C. The optimum temperature for the activity was observed to be 40°C using both casein and MOCAc-Pro-Leu-Gly-Leu-A₂pr(Dnp)-Ala-Arg-NH₂ as substrates. The activity of almelysin was inhibited by such metallo chelators as EDTA and o-phenanthroline, while talopeptin, phosphoramidon, and SMPI, typical metalloproteinase inhibitors, had no effect. Almelysin primarily cleaved the Ala¹⁴-Leu¹⁵ bond and Phe²⁴-Phe²⁵ bond, and secondarily the Tyr¹⁶-Leu¹⁷ bond in oxidized insulin B-chain. However, almelysin could not cleave the His⁵-Leu⁶, His¹⁰-Leu¹¹, and Gly²³-Phe²⁴ bonds, which were cleaved by other metalloproteinases. These results indicate that the substrate specificity of almelysin is different from other metalloproteinases. Interestingly, Alteromonas sp. No. 3696 strain produced another proteinase as well as almelysin at 25°C.     

Overexpressed Sod1p acts either to reduce or to increase the lifespans and stress resistance of yeast, depending on whether it is Cu(2+)-deficient or an active Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase

Yeast overexpressing SOD1, the gene for Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-Sod), was used to determine how Sod1p overexpression influences the chronological lifespan [the survival of non-dividing stationary (G0) phase cells over time], the replicative lifespan (the number of buds produced by actively dividing yeast cells) and stress resistance. Increasing the level of active Cu,Zn-Sod in yeast was found to require either growth in the presence of high copper, or the simultaneous overexpression of both SOD1 and CCS1 (the latter being the gene that encodes the chaperone dedicated to Cu(2+)-loading of Sod1p in vivo). Dual SOD1 + CCS1 overexpression elevated the levels of Cu,Zn-Sod activity six- to eight-fold in vegetative cultures. It also increased the optimized survival of stationary cells up to two-fold, showing this chronological lifespan is ultimately limited by oxidative stress. In contrast, several detrimental effects resulted when the SOD1 gene was overexpressed in the absence of either high copper or a simultaneous overexpression of CCS1. Both the chronological and the replicative lifespans were shortened; the cells displayed an abnormally high level of endogenous oxidative stress, resulting in a high rate of spontaneous mutation. Such harmful effects were all reversed through the overexpression of CCS1. It is apparent therefore that they relate to the incomplete Cu(2+)-loading of the overexpressed Sod1p, most probably accumulation of a Cu(2+)-deficient Sod1p to appreciable levels in vivo. The same events may generate the detrimental effects that are frequently, though not universally, observed when Cu,Zn-Sod overexpression is attempted in metazoans.     

Structural Basis of Heme Binding in the Cu,Zn Superoxide Dismutase from Haemophilus ducreyi

The Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase from Haemophilus ducreyi is characterized by the unique ability to bind heme at its dimer interface. Here we report the high-resolution crystal structures of this protein in the heme-loaded (holo) and heme-free (apo) forms. Heme is asymmetrically bound between the two enzyme subunits, where heme iron is coordinated by two histidine residues, His64 and His 124, provided by the two subunits. Moreover, the binding of heme to the protein is ensured by stabilizing contacts between the prosthetic group and a limited number of other residues, most of which are not present in other bacterial enzyme variants. We show that the introduction of only three mutations at the dimer interface of the enzyme from Haemophilus parainfluenzae, a closely related bacterial species, is sufficient to induce heme-binding ability by this enzyme variant. Heme binding does not alter protein activity. Moreover, the binding of the prosthetic group does not induce any significant structural perturbation at the subunit level and requires only limited local structural rearrangements that widen the cleft at the dimer interface and cause a limited shift in the relative orientation between the subunits. The presence of a preformed heme-binding pocket and the significant solvent exposure of the cofactor to the solvent are compatible with the suggested protective role of the enzyme against heme toxicity or with its involvement in heme trafficking in the periplasmic space.     

Molecular characterization and oxidative stress response of an intracellular Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD) of the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci

Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are important for the survival of insects under environmental and biological stresses; however, little attention has been devoted to the functional characterization of SODs in whitefly. In this study, an intracellular copper/zinc superoxide dismutase of whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) (Bt-CuZnSOD) was cloned. Sequence analysis indicated that the full length cDNA of Bt-CuZnSOD is of 907 bp with a 471 bp open reading frame encoding 157 amino acids. The deduced amino acid sequence shares common consensus patterns with the CuZnSODs of various vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Bt-CuZnSOD is grouped together with intracellular CuZnSODs. Bt-CuZnSOD was then over-expressed in E. coli and purified using GST purification system. The enzymatic activity of purified Bt-CuZnSOD was assayed under various temperatures. When whiteflies were exposed to low (4°C) and high (40°C) temperatures, the in vivo activity of Bt-CuZnSOD was significantly increased. Furthermore, we measured the activities of several antioxidant enzymes, including SOD, catalase and peroxidase, in the whitefly after transferring the whitefly from cotton to tobacco (an unfavorable host plant). We found that the activity of SOD increased rapidly on tobacco plant. Taken together, these results suggest that the Bt-CuZnSOD plays a major role in protecting the whitefly against various stress conditions.     

以聚乙二醇为层析伴侣同时制备SOD、过氧化氢酶和血红蛋白

发展了一条从红细胞裂解液中同时制备超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶和血红蛋白的新工艺。采用0 75 %的聚乙二醇600作为层析伴侣,使血红蛋白直接流过阴离子交换层析柱,同时吸附SOD和过氧化氢酶。经过梯度洗脱获得SOD和过氧化氢酶组分,再经过疏水性相互作用层析与凝胶过滤层析相串联,使SOD和过氧化氢酶得到纯化。纯化后的SOD和过氧化氢酶的比活力分别达到15932u/mg和65918u/mg ,血红蛋白的纯度达到99.9%以上。总回收率为:SOD ,47.4% ;过氧化氢酶,29.6% ;血红蛋白,88.7%。     

Homology Modeling and Comparative Profiling of Superoxide Dismutase Among Extremophiles: Exiguobacterium as a Model Organism

Superoxide dismutase (SOD), a well known antioxidant enzyme, is known to exert its presence across bacteria to humans. Apart from their well-known antioxidant defense mechanisms, their association with various extremophiles in response to various stress conditions is poorly understood. Here, we have discussed the conservation and the prevalence of SODs among 21 representative extremophiles. A systematic investigation of aligned amino acid sequences of SOD from all the selected extremophiles revealed a consensus motif D-[VLE]-[FW]-E-H-[AS]-Y-[YM]. To computationally predict the correlation of SOD with the various stress conditions encountered by these extremophiles, Exiguobacterium was selected as a model organism which is known to survive under various adverse extremophilic conditions. Interestingly, our phylogenetic study based on SOD homology revealed that Exiguobacterium sibiricum was one of the closest neighbors of Deinococcus radiodurans and Thermus thermophilus. Next, we sought to predict 3-D model structure of SOD for E. sibiricum (PMDB ID: 0078260), which showed >95 % similarity with D. radiodurans R1 SOD. The reliability of the predicted SOD model was checked by using various validation metrics, including Ramachandran plot, Z-score and normalized qualitative model energy analysis score. Further, various physicochemical properties of E. sibiricum SOD were calculated using different prominent resources.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12088-014-0482-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Kinetics properties of Cu,Zn-superoxide dismutase as a function of metal content

The kinetics of bovine Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase were studied by pulse radiolysis. To ensure the absence of catalytically active free copper, commercially obtained holo-superoxide dismutase was demetallated, and the apo-superoxide dismutase concentrations were determined by isothermal titration calorimetry prior to reconstitution with defined amounts of copper and zinc. The catalytic rate constant was determined as a function of ionic strength over the range of 4-154 mM, and of the copper and zinc content. The catalytic rate constant increases with ionic strength up to (1.5 +/- 0.2) x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1) at an ionic strength of 15 mM, and then decreases. At pH 7 and 50 mM ionic strength, k = (1.2 +/- 0.2) x 10(9) M(-1) s(-1), and at a physiologically relevant ionic strength of 150 mM, it is (0.7 +/- 0.1) x 10 (9) M(-1) s(-1). The effect of ionic strength is ascribed to the inhomogeneous electric field generated by the surface charges of superoxide dismutase. The value of the catalytic rate constant at 50 mM is ca. 2-fold smaller than earlier values reported in the literature. The relationship between copper content and the catalytic rate constant shows that addition of more than a stoichiometric amount of copper cannot be masked efficiently by EDTA. The possibility exists that earlier reported values were based on experiments contaminated with trace amounts of copper.     

Purification and Characterization of a Cold-active Iron Superoxide Dismutase from a Psychrophilic Bacterium, Marinomonas sp. NJ522

Marinomonas sp. NJ522, isolated from Antarctic sea ice, produces a cold-active iron superoxide dismutase (SOD; EC 1.15.1.1). The purified SOD was dimeric and had an approx. Mr of 48 kDa. Highest activity was detected from pH 8 to 10 and at 40 °C (assayed over 10 min). Activity at 0 °C was nearly 35% of the maximum activity. Received 25 August 2005; Revisions requested 30 August 2005 and 26 September 2005; Revisions received 12 September 2005 and 25 October 2005; Accepted 1 November 2005