Correlation of inhibition of ribosomal GTPase and protein synthesis by abrin and ricin.

The rate of inhibition of protein synthesis and ribosome-dependent GTPase activity by abrin and ricin was determined. Ribosomes were treated with toxin A-chains for increasing periods of time and they assayed for their ability to synthesize polyphenylalanine and hydrolyze GTP. The rate of inhibition of GTPase activity of the 60S subunit derived 8S ribonucleoprotein complex was also determined. Although the degree of maximal inhibition of protein synthesis and GTPase activity was different, the rates of inhibition were almost identical. The results support a conclusion that abrin and ricin inhibit protein synthesis by inactivating ribosome-dependent GTPase.     

Ribosome inactivation by the toxic lectins abrin and ricin. Kinetics of the enzymic activity of the toxin A-chains.

A sensitive test system for toxin-treated ribosomes was worked out by treating rabbit reticulocyte ribosomes with abrin A-chain, ricin A-chain or ricinus agglutinin A-chain, adding neutralizing amounts of specific antitoxins and testing for polyphenylalanine-synthesizing activity in a system where the concentration of elongation factors and ribosomes were varied. The strongest inhibition was obtained in the presence of low concentrations of elongation factor (EF-2). The activity of the ribosomes decreased with time of incubation with the toxin A-chains. Addition of anti-toxins stopped further inactivation. In systems containing untreated and toxin-treated ribosomes the ability to polymerize phenylalanine was proportional to the concentration of untreated ribosomes. There was a linear relationship between toxin A-chain concentration and the number of ribosomes inactivated per minute. The inactivation rate increased with temperature, and the estimated activation energy was 10.6 kcal (44.3 kJ). Linewaver-Burk plots of the data obtained by incubating various ribosome concentrations with toxins indicated a molecular activity of about 1500 ribosomes/minute for abrin and ricin A-chains and 100 ribosomes/minute for ricinus agglutinin A-chain. The apparent Michaelis constant was 0.1-0.2 muM for all three A-chains. The activity of the A-chains in the intact cell is discussed.     

Nucleotide sequences of the mRNA''s encoding the vesicular stomatitis virus N and NS proteins.

The complete nucleotide sequences of the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) mRNA's encoding the N and NS proteins have been determined from the sequences of cDNA clones. The mRNA encoding the N protein is 1,326 nucleotides long, excluding polyadenylic acid. It contains an open reading frame for translation which extends from the 5'-proximal AUG codon to encode a protein of 422 amino acids. The N and mRNA is known to contain a major ribosome binding site at the 5'-proximal AUG codon and two other minor ribosome binding sites. These secondary sites have been located unambiguously at the second and third AUG codons in the N mRNA sequence. Translational initiation at these sites, if it in fact occurs, would result in synthesis of two small proteins in a second reading frame. The VSV and mrna encoding the NS protein is 815 nucleotides long, excluding polyadenylic acid, and encodes a protein of 222 amino acids. The predicted molecular weight of the NS protein (25,110) is approximately one-half of that predicted from the mobility of NS protein on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels. Deficiency of sodium dodecyl sulfate binding to a large negatively charged domain in the NS protein could explain this anomalous electrophoretic mobility.     

Identification of a competitive translation determinant in the 3' untranslated region of alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein mRNA.

We report that the competitive translational activity of alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein mRNA (CP RNA), a nonadenylated mRNA, is determined in part by the 3' untranslated region (UTR). Competitive translation was characterized both in vitro, with cotranslation assays, and in vivo, with microinjected Xenopus laevis oocytes. In wheat germ extracts, coat protein synthesis was constant when a fixed amount of full-length CP RNA was cotranslated with increasing concentrations of competitor globin mRNA. However, translation of CP RNA lacking the 3' UTR decreased significantly under competitive conditions. RNA stabilities were equivalent. In X. laevis oocytes, which are translationally saturated and are an inherently competitive translational environment, full-length CP RNA assembled into large polysomes and coat protein synthesis was readily detectable. Alternatively, CP RNA lacking the 3' UTR sedimented as small polysomes, and little coat protein was detected. Again, RNA stabilities were equivalent. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to localize RNA sequences or structures required for competitive translation. Since the CP RNA 3' UTR has an unusually large number of AUG nucleotide triplets, two AUG-containing sites were altered in full-length RNA prior to oocyte injections. Nucleotide substitutions at the sequence GAUG, 20 nucleotides downstream of the coat protein termination codon, specifically reduced full-length CP RNA translation, while similar substitutions at the next AUG triplet had little effect on translation. The competitive influence of the 3' UTR could be explained by RNA-protein interactions that affect translation initiation or by ribosome reinitiation at downstream AUG codons, which would increase the number of ribosomes committed to coat protein synthesis.     

Nucleotide sequences of the mRNA''s encoding the vesicular stomatitis virus G and M proteins determined from cDNA clones containing the complete coding regions.

The complete nucleotide sequences of the vesicular stomatitis virus mRNA's encoding the glycoprotein (G) and the matrix protein (M) have been determined from cDNA clones that contain the complete coding sequences from each mRNA. The G protein mRNA is 1,665 nucleotides long, excluding polyadenylic acid, and encodes a protein of 511 amino acids including a signal peptide of 16 amino acids. G protein contains two large hydrophobic domains, one in the signal peptide and the other in the transmembrane segment near the COOH terminus. Two sites of glycosylation are predicted at amino acid residues 178 and 335. The close correspondence of the positions of these sites with the reported timing of the addition of the two oligosaccharides during synthesis of G suggests that glycosylation occurs as soon as the appropriate asparagine residues traverse the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The mRNA encoding the vesicular stomatitis virus M protein is 831 nucleotides long, excluding polyadenylic acid, and encodes a protein of 229 amino acids. The predicted M protein sequence does not contain any long hydrophobic or nonpolar domains that might promote membrane association. The protein is rich in basic amino acids and contains a highly basic amino terminal domain. Details of construction of the nearly full-length cDNA clones are presented.     

Mutational analysis of the Shiga toxin and Shiga-like toxin II enzymatic subunits.

The A-subunit polypeptides of Shiga toxin, the Shiga-like toxins (SLTs), and the plant lectin ricin inactivate eucaryotic ribosomes by enzymatically depurinating 28S rRNA. Comparison of the amino acid sequences of the members of the Shiga toxin family and ricin revealed two regions of significant homology that lie within a proposed active-site cleft of the ricin A chain. In previous studies, these conserved sequences of the SLT-I and ricin A subunits have been implicated as active sites. To establish the importance of these regions of homology, we used site-directed mutagenesis to alter the A-subunit sequences of two members of the Shiga toxin family. Substitution of an aspartic acid for glutamic acid 166 of the Slt-IIA subunit decreased the capacity of the polypeptides to inhibit protein synthesis at least 100-fold in a cell-free translation system. However, this mutation did not prevent the expression of immunoreactive, full-length Slt-IIA. In addition, SLT-II holotoxin containing the mutated A subunit was 1,000-fold less toxic to Vero cells. Finally, site-directed mutagenesis was used to delete sequences encoding amino acids 202 through 213 of the Shiga toxin A subunit. Although this deletion did not prevent holotoxin assembly, it abolished cytotoxic activity.     

Signaling different pathways of cell death: Abrin induced programmed necrosis in U266B1 cells

Abrin is a type II ribosome-inactivating protein comprising of two subunits, A and B. Of the two, the A-subunit harbours the RNA-N-glycosidase activity and the B subunit is a galactose specific lectin that enables the entry of the protein inside the cell. Abrin inhibits protein synthesis and has been reported to induce apoptosis in several cell types. Based on these observations abrin is considered to have potential for the construction of immunotoxin in cell targeted therapy. Preliminary data from our laboratory however showed that although abrin inhibited the protein synthesis in all cell types, the mode of cell death varied. The aim of the present study was therefore to understand different death pathways induced by abrin in different cells. We used the human B cell line, U266B1 and compared it with the earlier studied T cell line Jurkat, for abrin-mediated inhibition of protein translation as well as cell death. While abrin triggered programmed apoptosis in Jurkat cells in a caspase-dependent manner, it induced programmed necrosis in U266B1 cells in a caspase-independent manner, even when there was reactive oxygen species production and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. The data revealed that abrin-mediated necrosis involves lysosomal membrane permeabilization and release of cathepsins from the lysosomes. Importantly, the choice of abrin-mediated death pathway in the cells appears to depend on which of the two events occurs first: lysosomal membrane permeabilization or loss of mitochondrial membrane potential that decides cell death by necrosis or apoptosis.     

Isolation and characterization of full-length cDNA clones for human alpha-, beta-, and gamma-actin mRNAs: skeletal but not cytoplasmic actins have an amino-terminal cysteine that is subsequently removed.

cDNA clones encoding three classes of human actins have been isolated and characterized. The first two classes (gamma and beta, cytoplasmic actins) were obtained from a cDNA library constructed from simian virus 40-transformed human fibroblast mRNA, and the third class (alpha, muscle actin) was obtained from a cDNA library constructed from adult human muscle mRNA. A new approach was developed to enrich for full-length cDNAs. The human fibroblast cDNA plasmid library was linearized with restriction enzymes that did not cut the inserts of interest; it was then size-fractionated on gels, and the chimeric molecules of optimal length were selected for retransformation of bacteria. When the resulting clones were screened for actin-coding sequences it was found that some full-length cDNAs were enriched as much as 50- to 100-fold relative to the original frequency of full-length clones in the total library. Two types of clones were distinguished. One of these clones encodes gamma actin and contains 100 base pairs of 5' untranslated region, the entire protein coding region, and the 3' untranslated region. The second class encodes beta actin, and the longest such clone contains 45 base pairs of 5' untranslated region plus the remainder of the mRNA extending to the polyadenylic acid tail. A third class, obtained from the human muscle cDNA library, encodes alpha actin and contains 100 base pairs of 5' untranslated region, the entire coding region, and the 3' untranslated region. Analysis of the DNA sequences of the 5' end of the clones demonstrated that although beta- and gamma-actin genes start with a methionine codon (MET-Asp-Asp-Asp and MET-Glu-Glu-Glu, respectively), the alpha-actin gene starts with a methionine codon followed by a cysteine codon (MET-CYS-Asp-Glu-Asp-Glu). Since no known actin proteins start with a cysteine, it is likely that post-translational removal of cysteine in addition to methionine accompanies alpha-actin synthesis but not beta- and gamma-actin synthesis. This observation has interesting implications both for actin function and actin gene regulation and evolution.     

Evidence for a Competitive-Displacement Model for the initiation of protein synthesis involving the intermolecular hybridization of 5 S rRNA, 18 S rRNA and mRNA.

We have previously shown that a 5'-terminal region of mouse 5 S rRNA can base-pair in vitro with two distinct regions of 18 S rRNA. Further analysis reveals that these 5 S rRNA-complementary sequences in 18 S rRNA also exhibit complementarity to the Kozak consensus sequence surrounding the mRNA translational start site. To test the possibility that these 2 regions in 18 S rRNA may be involved in mRNA binding and translational initiation, we have tested, using an in vitro translation system, the effects of DNA oligonucleotides complementary to these 18 S rRNA sequences on protein synthesis. Results show that an oligonucleotide complementary to one 18 S rRNA region does inhibit translation at the step of initiation. We propose a Competitive-Displacement Model for the initiation of translation involving the intermolecular base-pairing of 5 S rRNA, 18 S rRNA and mRNA.     

On the mechanism of protein-synthesis inhibition by abrin and ricin. Inhibition of the GTP-hydrolysis site on the 60-S ribosomal subunit.

The mechanism of protein synthesis inhibition by the toxic lectins, abrin and ricin, has been studied in crude and in purified cell-free systems from rabbit reticulocytes and Krebs II ascites cells. In crude systems abrin and ricin strongly inhibited protein synthesis from added aminoacyl-tRNA, demonstrating that the toxins act at some point after the charging of tRNA. Supernatant factors and polysomes washed free of elongation factors were treated separately with the toxins and then neutralizing amounts of anti-toxins were added. Recombination experiments between toxin-treated ribosomes and untreated supernatant factors and vice versa showed that the toxin-treated ribosomes had lost most of their ability to support polyphenylalanine synthesis, whereas treatment of the supernatant factors with the toxins did not inhibit polypeptide synthesis. Recombination experiments between toxin-treated isolated 40-S subunits and untreated 60-S subunits and vice versa showed that only when the 60-S subunits had been treated with the toxins was protein synthesis inhibited in the reconstituted system. The incorporation of [3H]puromycin into nascent peptide chains was unaffected by the toxins, indicating that the peptidyl transferase is not inhibited. Both the EF-1-catalyzed and the EF-2-catalyzed ability of the ribosomes to hydrolyze [gamma-32P]GTP was inhibited by abrin and ricin. An 8-S complex released from the 60-S subunit by EDTA treatment possessed both GTPase and ATPase activity, while the particle remaining after the EDTA treatment had lost most of its GTPase activity. Both enzyme activities of the 8-S complex were inhibited by abrin and ricin. The present data indicate that there is a common site on the 60-S subunits for EF-1- and EF-2- stimulated GTPase activity and they suggest that abrin and ricin inhibit protein synthesis by modifying this site.     

Cloning of eukaryotic protein synthesis initiation factor genes: isolation and characterization of cDNA clones encoding factor eIF-4A.

Monoclonal antibodies directed against rabbit reticulocyte protein synthesis initiation factor 4A (eIF-4A) were used to isolate mouse cDNA clones expressing eIF-4A protein sequences in E. coli. The identity of cDNA clones encoding eIF-4A sequences was confirmed by hybrid-selected translation and peptide mapping of the translation product. Analysis of the mRNA coding for eIF-4A from mouse liver and HeLa cells by Northern hybridization revealed two discrete mRNA species of approximately 2000 and 1600 nucleotides in length. The existence of two mRNAs in mouse and HeLa cells encoding eIF-4A was confirmed by cDNA sequencing.     

Mechanistic Insights into the Neutralization of Cytotoxic Abrin by the Monoclonal Antibody D6F10

Abrin, an A/B toxin obtained from the Abrus precatorius plant is extremely toxic and a potential bio-warfare agent. Till date there is no antidote or vaccine available against this toxin. The only known neutralizing monoclonal antibody against abrin, namely D6F10, has been shown to rescue the toxicity of abrin in cells as well as in mice. The present study focuses on mapping the epitopic region to understand the mechanism of neutralization of abrin by the antibody D6F10. Truncation and mutational analysis of abrin A chain revealed that the amino acids 74–123 of abrin A chain contain the core epitope and the residues Thr112, Gly114 and Arg118 are crucial for binding of the antibody. In silico analysis of the position of the mapped epitope indicated that it is present close to the active site cleft of abrin A chain. Thus, binding of the antibody near the active site blocks the enzymatic activity of abrin A chain, thereby rescuing inhibition of protein synthesis by the toxin in vitro. At 1∶10 molar concentration of abrin:antibody, the antibody D6F10 rescued cells from abrin-mediated inhibition of protein synthesis but did not prevent cell attachment of abrin. Further, internalization of the antibody bound to abrin was observed in cells by confocal microscopy. This is a novel finding which suggests that the antibody might function intracellularly and possibly explains the rescue of abrin’s toxicity by the antibody in whole cells and animals. To our knowledge, this study is the first report on a neutralizing epitope for abrin and provides mechanistic insights into the poorly understood mode of action of anti-A chain antibodies against several toxins including ricin.     

麻疯树核糖体失活蛋白基因的克隆和表达

麻疯树(Jatropha curcas L.)核糖体失活蛋白(curcin)是存在于麻疯树种子中的一种毒性较强的蛋白,它与蓖麻毒蛋白和相思子毒蛋白的性质相似,属Ⅰ型核糖体失活蛋白.从麻疯树种子中分离得到一种分子量为28.2 kD的蛋白质,其对无细胞系统中蛋白质合成的抑制活性较强,IC50为(0.19±0.01)nmol/L,具有RNA N-糖苷酶活性.依据curcin的N端部分氨基酸设计简并引物,通过RT-PCR和5'-RACE技术从未成熟种子总RNA中克隆到curcin全长cDNA序列.该cDNA全长由1 173个碱基组成,包含一个编码293个氨基酸的前体蛋白,前42个氨基酸为信号肽.推测的多肽序列与测定的蛋白质N端序列相同,与多种己发表的Ⅰ型核糖体失活蛋白和Ⅱ型核糖体失活蛋白的A链有一定的同源性.将curcin的编码区与表达载体pQE-30相连后,转入大肠杆菌(Escherichia coil)M15菌株中得到了有效的表达.将表达的融合蛋白纯化后发现,它具有抑制无细胞系统蛋白质合成的能力.     

Preproabrin: genomic cloning, characterisation and the expression of the A-chain in Escherichia coli

Synthetic oligonucleotides representing all possible sequences of an N-terminal and an internal region of the A-chain of abrin C were used to generate a probe specific for abrin-related sequences using the polymerase chain reaction on Abrus precatorius genomic DNA. A lambda phage library constructed from genomic DNA isolated from leaf tissue of A. precatorius was screened and positive hybridising clones were characterised by restriction enzyme analysis. The coding regions of unique clones were characterised by DNA sequencing. One clone encodes a preproprotein closely related to abrin C with 83% similarity between the A-chain sequences. Based on similarity with the ricin toxins and Ricinus communis agglutinin, the preproabrin consists of an A-chain of 251 amino acids preceded by 34 amino acids containing an N-terminal signal peptide, followed by a 14-amino-acid linker and a B-chain of 263 amino acids. The mature A-chain of the preproabrin has been expressed cytoplasmically in Escherichia coli and the soluble recombinant protein was produced at levels exceeding 6% of total cell protein. The recombinant A-chain has been purified to homogeneity and its ability to depurinate 28S rRNA in rat liver ribosomes has been demonstrated in vitro.     

Rat vitamin D binding protein. Determination of the full-length primary structure from cloned cDNA

Vitamin D binding protein (DBP) is an abundant serum glycoprotein secreted by the liver which transports vitamin D sterols, binds to actin, and is found on the surface of B-lymphocytes and subpopulations of T-lymphocytes. In the current study, a cDNA to rat DBP mRNA was cloned from a bacteriophage lambda gt 11 rat liver expression library. This DBP cDNA clone was identified by immunoblotting and its identity was confirmed by immunoprecipitation of a 54-kDa protein after hybrid-assisted translation. Northern analysis and primer extension mapping of rat liver mRNA indicated that the full-length DBP mRNA contains 1700 bases. By DNA sequence analysis this 1655-base pair clone contains a single open reading frame encoding the 476-amino acid containing full-length DBP and includes its 16-amino acid signal sequence. Analysis of the sequence reveals about 40% nucleotide and 23% amino acid homology to both albumin and alpha-fetoprotein. The encoded DBP contains a characteristic placement of cysteine residues, identical to that in albumin, suggesting a similar secondary folding structure. Albumin and alpha-fetoprotein are composed of three internally homologous domains. DBP mRNA terminates 122 amino acids before the larger albumin mRNA in the third internal domain, but retains the characteristic homology among the first two domains and the truncated portion of the third domain. These data support the conclusion that DBP is a member of a multigene family which includes albumin and alpha-fetoprotein.