Spontaneous Variants of the [RNQ+] Prion in Yeast Demonstrate the Extensive Conformational Diversity Possible with Prion Proteins

Prion strains (or variants) are structurally distinct amyloid conformations arising from a single polypeptide sequence. The existence of prion strains has been well documented in mammalian prion diseases. In many cases, prion strains manifest as variation in disease progression and pathology, and in some cases, these prion strains also show distinct biochemical properties. Yet, the underlying basis of prion propagation and the extent of conformational possibilities available to amyloidogenic proteins remain largely undefined. Prion proteins in yeast that are also capable of maintaining multiple self-propagating structures have provided much insight into prion biology. Here, we explore the vast structural diversity of the yeast prion [RNQ+] in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We screened for the formation of [RNQ+] in vivo, allowing us to calculate the rate of spontaneous formation as ~2.96x10^-6, and successfully isolate several different [RNQ+] variants. Through a comprehensive set of biochemical and biological analyses, we show that these prion variants are indeed novel. No individual property or set of properties, including aggregate stability and size, was sufficient to explain the physical basis and range of prion variants and their resulting cellular phenotypes. Furthermore, all of the [RNQ+] variants that we isolated were able to facilitate the de novo formation of the yeast prion [PSI+], an epigenetic determinant of translation termination. This supports the hypothesis that [RNQ+] acts as a functional amyloid in regulating the formation of [PSI+] to produce phenotypic diversity within a yeast population and promote adaptation. Collectively, this work shows the broad spectrum of available amyloid conformations, and thereby expands the foundation for studying the complex factors that interact to regulate the propagation of distinct aggregate structures.     

Infectious Fold and Amyloid Propagation in Podospora anserina

Amyloid protein aggregation is involved in serious neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer''s disease and transmissible encephalopathies. The concept of an infectious protein (prion) being the scrapie agent was successfully validated for several yeast and fungi proteins. Ure2, Sup35 and Rnq1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and HET-s in Podospora anserina have been genetically and biochemically identified as prion proteins. Studies on these proteins have revealed critical information on the mechanisms of prions appearance and propagation. The prion phenotype correlates with the aggregation state of these particular proteins. In vitro, the recombinant prion proteins form amyloid fibers characterized by rich β sheet content. In a previous work on the HET-s prion protein Podospora, we demonstrated the infectivity of HET-s recombinant amyloid aggregates. More recently, the structural analysis of the HET-s prion domain associated with in vivo mutagenesis allowed us to propose a model for the infectious fold of the HET-s prion domain. Further investigations to complete this model are discussed in this review, as are relevant questions about the [Het-s] system of Podospora anserina.Key Words: prion, HET-s, Podospora, amyloid, infectious, β sheet, mutagenesis, fold, propagation     

The [RNQ+] prion: A model of both functional and pathological amyloid

The formation of fibrillar amyloid is most often associated with protein conformational disorders such as prion diseases, Alzheimer disease and Huntington disease. Interestingly, however, an increasing number of studies suggest that amyloid structures can sometimes play a functional role in normal biology. Several proteins form self-propagating amyloids called prions in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These unique elements operate by creating a reversible, epigenetic change in phenotype. While the function of the non-prion conformation of the Rnq1 protein is unclear, the prion form, [RNQ⁺], acts to facilitate the de novo formation of other prions to influence cellular phenotypes. The [RNQ⁺] prion itself does not adversely affect the growth of yeast, but the overexpression of Rnq1p can form toxic aggregated structures that are not necessarily prions. The [RNQ⁺] prion is also involved in dictating the aggregation and toxicity of polyglutamine proteins ectopically expressed in yeast. Thus, the [RNQ⁺] prion provides a tractable model that has the potential to reveal significant insight into the factors that dictate how amyloid structures are initiated and propagated in both physiological and pathological contexts.Key words: [RNQ⁺], [PSI⁺], prion, polyglutamine, functional amyloid, toxic amyloid, chaperones, epigenetic     

Modification of [PSI +] prion properties by combining amino acid changes in N-terminal domain of Sup35 protein

The prion [PSI ⁺] is an amyloid isoform of the release factor eRF3 encoded by the SUP35 gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Naturally occurring amyloid complexes have been studied for a long time, yet their structural organization is still not well understood. The formation of amyloid forms of the wild-type Sup35 protein (Sup35p) is directed by its N-terminal portion, which forms a superpleated β-sheet structure. We previously constructed five mutants, each of which carried a replacement in two consecutive amino acids, one in each of the oligopeptide repeats (OR) and in the Sup35p N-terminal region. Mutations sup35-M1 (YQ46-47KK) and sup35-M2 (QQ61-62KK) lead to the compete loss of prion conformation. Three other mutants, i.e., sup35-M3 (QQ70-71KK), sup35-M4 (QQ80-81KK), and sup35-M5 (QQ89-90KK), formed functional prions. In the current study, we investigated the contribution of each mutant peptide to the stability of the prion and aggregation properties, and compared the effects of single mutants and combinations of different mutant alleles. Studies were carried out in yeast strains designed to carry single or a combination of different SUP35 alleles. Based on our analysis, we propose a model that clarifies the 3D organization of the β-sheet within the prion. We also provide evidence that sup35-M2 and sup35-M4 mutations change the 3D structure of prion complexes. We propose that the destabilization of prion complexes in these mutants is due to the decreased efficiency of the fragmentation of the prion aggregates by chaperone complexes.     

The Molecular Organization of the Fungal Prion HET-s in Its Amyloid Form

The prion hypothesis states that it is solely the three-dimensional structure of the polypeptide chain that distinguishes the prion and nonprion forms of the protein. For HET-s, the atomic-resolution structure of the isolated prion domain HET-s(218-289), consisting of a highly ordered triangular cross-β arrangement, is known. Here we present a solid-state NMR study of fibrils of the full-length HET-s prion in which we compare their spectra with spectra from isolated C-terminal prion domain fibrils and the crystalline N-terminal globular domain HET-s(1-227). The spectra reveal unequivocally that the highly ordered structure of the isolated prion domain HET-s(218-289) is conserved in the context of the full-length fibrils investigated here. However, the globular domain loses much of its tertiary structure while partly retaining its secondary structure, thus exhibiting behavior reminiscent of a molten globule. Flexible residues that may constitute the linker connecting the two domains are detected using INEPT (insensitive nuclei enhanced by polarization transfer) spectroscopy. Based on our data, we propose a structural model that is in line with a general model developed for amyloid fibrils built from a cross-β core decorated with globular domains. The loss of structure in the HET-s globular domain sharply contrasts with the behavior observed for fibrils of Ure2p and suggests that there is considerable structural diversity in the fibrils of globular-domain-containing prions despite their similar appearances at the microscopic level.     

Contribution of Specific Residues of the β-Solenoid Fold to HET-s Prion Function,Amyloid Structure and Stability

The [Het-s] prion of the fungus Podospora anserina represents a good model system for studying the structure-function relationship in amyloid proteins because a high resolution solid-state NMR structure of the amyloid prion form of the HET-s prion forming domain (PFD) is available. The HET-s PFD adopts a specific β-solenoid fold with two rungs of β-strands delimiting a triangular hydrophobic core. A C-terminal loop folds back onto the rigid core region and forms a more dynamic semi-hydrophobic pocket extending the hydrophobic core. Herein, an alanine scanning mutagenesis of the HET-s PFD was conducted. Different structural elements identified in the prion fold such as the triangular hydrophobic core, the salt bridges, the asparagines ladders and the C-terminal loop were altered and the effect of these mutations on prion function, fibril structure and stability was assayed. Prion activity and structure were found to be very robust; only a few key mutations were able to corrupt structure and function. While some mutations strongly destabilize the fold, many substitutions in fact increase stability of the fold. This increase in structural stability did not influence prion formation propensity in vivo. However, if an Ala replacement did alter the structure of the core or did influence the shape of the denaturation curve, the corresponding variant showed a decreased prion efficacy. It is also the finding that in addition to the structural elements of the rigid core region, the aromatic residues in the C-terminal semi-hydrophobic pocket are critical for prion propagation. Mutations in the latter region either positively or negatively affected prion formation. We thus identify a region that modulates prion formation although it is not part of the rigid cross-β core, an observation that might be relevant to other amyloid models.     

Dynamics of polymerization shed light on the mechanisms that lead to multiple amyloid structures of the prion protein

It is generally accepted that spongiform encephalopathies result from the aggregation into amyloid of a ubiquitous protein, the so-called prion protein. As a consequence, the dynamics of amyloid formation should explain the characteristics of the prion diseases: infectivity as well as sporadic and genetic occurrence, long incubation time, species barriers and strain specificities. The success of this amyloid hypothesis is due to the good qualitative agreement of this hypothesis with the observations. However, a number of difficulties appeared when comparing quantitatively the in vitro experimental results with the theoretical models, suggesting that some differences should hide important discrepancies. We used well defined quantitative models to analyze the experimental results obtained by in vitro polymerization of the recombinant hamster prion protein. Although the dynamics of polymerization resembles a simple nucleus-dependent fibrillogenesis, neither the initial concentration dependence nor off-pathway hypothesis fit with experimental results. Furthermore, seeded polymerization starts after a long time delay suggesting the existence of a specific mechanism that takes place before nucleus formation. On the other hand, polymerization dynamics reveals a highly stochastic mechanism, the origin of which appears to be caused by nucleation heterogeneity. Moreover, the specific structures generated during nucleation are maintained during successive seeding although a clear improvement of the dynamics parameters (polymerization rate and lag time) is observed. We propose that an additional on-pathway reaction takes place before nucleation and it is responsible for the heterogeneity of structures produced during prion protein polymerization in vitro. These amyloid structures behave like prion strains. A model is proposed to explain the genesis of heterogeneity among prion amyloid.     

Compositional Determinants of Prion Formation in Yeast

Numerous prions (infectious proteins) have been identified in yeast that result from the conversion of soluble proteins into β-sheet-rich amyloid-like protein aggregates. Yeast prion formation is driven primarily by amino acid composition. However, yeast prion domains are generally lacking in the bulky hydrophobic residues most strongly associated with amyloid formation and are instead enriched in glutamines and asparagines. Glutamine/asparagine-rich domains are thought to be involved in both disease-related and beneficial amyloid formation. These domains are overrepresented in eukaryotic genomes, but predictive methods have not yet been developed to efficiently distinguish between prion and nonprion glutamine/asparagine-rich domains. We have developed a novel in vivo assay to quantitatively assess how composition affects prion formation. Using our results, we have defined the compositional features that promote prion formation, allowing us to accurately distinguish between glutamine/asparagine-rich domains that can form prion-like aggregates and those that cannot. Additionally, our results explain why traditional amyloid prediction algorithms fail to accurately predict amyloid formation by the glutamine/asparagine-rich yeast prion domains.Amyloid fibers are associated with a large number of neurodegenerative diseases and systemic amyloidoses. Amyloid fibrils are rich in a cross-beta quaternary structure in which β-strands are perpendicular to the long axis of the fibril (8).[URE3] and [PSI⁺] are the prion (infectious protein) forms of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins Ure2 and Sup35, respectively (61). Formation of both prions involves conversion of the native proteins into an infectious, amyloid form. Ure2 and Sup35 have served as powerful model systems for examining the basis for amyloid formation and propagation. Both proteins possess a well-ordered functional domain responsible for the normal function of the protein, while a functionally and structurally separate glutamine/asparagine (Q/N)-rich intrinsically disordered domain is necessary and sufficient for prion aggregation and propagation (4, 26, 27, 52, 53). Both proteins can form multiple prion variants, which are distinguished by the efficiency of prion propagation and by the precise structure of the amyloid core (14, 54).Five other prion proteins have also been identified in yeast: Rnq1 (13, 46), Swi1 (15), Cyc8 (33), Mca1 (30), and Mot3 (1). Numerous other proteins, including New1, contain domains that show prion activity when inserted in place of the Sup35 prion-forming domain (PFD) (1, 42). Each of these prion proteins contains a Q/N-rich PFD. Similar Q/N-rich domains are overrepresented in eukaryotic genomes (28), raising the intriguing possibility that prion-like structural conversions by Q/N-rich domains may be common in other eukaryotes. However, we currently have little ability to predict whether a given Q/N-rich domain can form prions.A variety of algorithms have been developed to predict a peptide''s propensity to form amyloid fibrils based on its amino acid sequence, including BETASCAN (6), TANGO (17), Zyggregator (51), SALSA (62), and PASTA (55). These algorithms have been successful at identifying regions prone to amyloid aggregation and predicting the effects of mutations on aggregation propensity for many amyloid-forming proteins. However, they have generally been quite ineffective for Q/N-rich amyloid domains such as the yeast PFDs. For example, using the statistical mechanics-based algorithm TANGO (17), which predicts aggregation propensity based on a peptide''s physicochemical properties, Linding et al. found that the Sup35 and Ure2 PFDs both completely lack predicted β-aggregation nuclei (24). Similarly, yeast PFDs are generally lacking in the hydrophobic residues predicted by algorithms such as Zyggregator to nucleate amyloid formation.Why are these algorithms so effective for many amyloid-forming proteins but not for yeast PFDs? For most amyloid proteins, amyloid formation is driven by short hydrophobic protein stretches, and increased hydrophobicity is correlated with an increased amyloid aggregation propensity (34). In contrast, the yeast PFDs are all highly polar domains, due largely to the high concentration of Q/N residues and the lack of hydrophobic residues. High Q/N content is clearly not a requirement for a domain to act as a prion in yeast, since neither the mammalian prion protein PrP nor the Podospora anserina prion protein HET-s is Q/N rich, yet fragments from both proteins can act as prions in yeast (49, 50). However, the significant compositional differences between the yeast PFDs and most other amyloid/prion proteins suggest that there may be two distinct classes of amyloid-forming proteins driven by different types of interactions. Specifically, Q/N residues, which are predicted to have a relatively low amyloid propensity in the context of hydrophobic amyloid domains (34), may promote amyloid formation when present at sufficiently high density. Stacking of Q/N residues to form polar zippers has been proposed to stabilize amyloid fibrils (35). Consistent with this hypothesis, mutational studies of Sup35 indicate that Q/N residues are critical for driving [PSI⁺] formation (12), and expanded poly-Q or poly-N tracts are sufficient to drive amyloid aggregation (36, 63). Therefore, this paper examines the sequence features that allow the polar, Q/N-rich yeast PFDs to form prions.Mutational studies of the PFDs of Ure2 and Sup35 have shown that amino acid composition is the predominant feature driving prion formation (40, 41). Due to the unique compositional biases observed in the yeast PFDs, algorithms have been developed to identify potential PFDs based solely on amino acid composition (19, 28, 42). These algorithms are designed to produce a list of potential prion proteins that meet a specific set of criteria (such as high Q/N content) but are not able to predict the prion propensity of each member of the list or to predict the effects of mutations on prion formation. A recent study by Alberti et al. was the first to systematically test whether compositional similarity to known PFDs is sufficient to distinguish between Q/N-rich proteins that form prions and those that do not. They developed a hidden Markov model to identify domains that are compositionally similar to known PFDs and then analyzed the 100 highest-scoring Q/N-rich domains in a series of in vivo and in vitro assays (1). Remarkably, they discovered 18 proteins with prion-like activity in all assays. However, an equal number, including some of the domains with greatest compositional similarity to known PFDs, showed no prion-like activity.This inability to distinguish between Q/N-rich proteins that form prions and those that do not might seem to suggest that amino acid composition is not an accurate predictor of prion propensity. However, an alternative explanation is that known yeast PFDs are not an ideal training set for a composition-based prediction algorithm, since yeast prions are likely not optimized for maximal prion propensity. It is unclear whether yeast prion formation is a beneficial phenomenon providing a mechanism to regulate protein activity or a detrimental phenomenon analogous to human amyloid disease. [PSI⁺] can increase resistance to certain stress conditions (56), but the failure to observe [PSI⁺] in wild yeast strains (29) argues that beneficial [PSI⁺] formation is at most a rare event. If yeast prions are diseases, the PFDs certainly would not be optimized for maximum prion potential. If prion formation is a beneficial event allowing for rapid conversion between active and inactive states, the prion potential of the PFD would be optimized such that the frequencies of prion formation and loss would yield the optimal balance of prion and nonprion cells (25). Thus, specific residues might be excluded from yeast PFDs either because they inhibit prion formation or because they too strongly promote prion formation; bioinformatic analysis can reveal which residues are excluded from yeast PFDs but not why they are excluded. Accurate prediction of prion propensity requires understanding which deviations from known prion-forming compositions will promote prion formation and which will inhibit.We have therefore developed the first in vivo method to quantitatively determine the prion propensity for each amino acid in the context of a Q/N-rich PFD. As expected, we found proline and charged residues to be strongly inhibitory to prion formation; but surprisingly, despite being largely underrepresented in yeast PFDs, hydrophobic residues strongly promoted prion formation. Furthermore, although Q/N residues dominate yeast PFDs, prion propensity appears relatively insensitive to the exact number of Q/N residues. Using these data, we were able to distinguish with approximately 90% accuracy between Q/N-rich domains that can form prion-like aggregates and those that cannot. These experiments provide the first detailed insight into the compositional requirements for yeast prion formation and illuminate the different methods by which Q/N- and non-Q/N-rich amyloidogenic proteins aggregate.     

Distinct Amino Acid Compositional Requirements for Formation and Maintenance of the [PSI+] Prion in Yeast

Multiple yeast prions have been identified that result from the structural conversion of proteins into a self-propagating amyloid form. Amyloid-based prion activity in yeast requires a series of discrete steps. First, the prion protein must form an amyloid nucleus that can recruit and structurally convert additional soluble proteins. Subsequently, maintenance of the prion during cell division requires fragmentation of these aggregates to create new heritable propagons. For the Saccharomyces cerevisiae prion protein Sup35, these different activities are encoded by different regions of the Sup35 prion domain. An N-terminal glutamine/asparagine-rich nucleation domain is required for nucleation and fiber growth, while an adjacent oligopeptide repeat domain is largely dispensable for prion nucleation and fiber growth but is required for chaperone-dependent prion maintenance. Although prion activity of glutamine/asparagine-rich proteins is predominantly determined by amino acid composition, the nucleation and oligopeptide repeat domains of Sup35 have distinct compositional requirements. Here, we quantitatively define these compositional requirements in vivo. We show that aromatic residues strongly promote both prion formation and chaperone-dependent prion maintenance. In contrast, nonaromatic hydrophobic residues strongly promote prion formation but inhibit prion propagation. These results provide insight into why some aggregation-prone proteins are unable to propagate as prions.     

Sup35 methionine oxidation is a trigger for de novo [PSI+] prion formation

ABSTRACT. The molecular basis by which fungal and mammalian prions arise spontaneously is poorly understood. A number of different environmental stress conditions are known to increase the frequency of yeast [PSI⁺] prion formation in agreement with the idea that conditions which cause protein misfolding may promote the conversion of normally soluble proteins to their amyloid forms. A recent study from our laboratory has shown that the de novo formation of the [PSI⁺] prion is significantly increased in yeast mutants lacking key antioxidants suggesting that endogenous reactive oxygen species are sufficient to promote prion formation. Our findings strongly implicate oxidative damage of Sup35 as an important trigger for the formation of the heritable [PSI⁺] prion in yeast. This review discusses the mechanisms by which the direct oxidation of Sup35 might lead to structural transitions favoring conversion to the transmissible amyloid-like form. This is analogous to various environmental factors which have been proposed to trigger misfolding of the mammalian prion protein (PrP^C) into the aggregated scrapie form (PrP^Sc).     

Genomic clustering and homology between HET-S and the NWD2 STAND protein in various fungal genomes

Background

Prions are infectious proteins propagating as self-perpetuating amyloid polymers. The [Het-s] prion of Podospora anserina is involved in a cell death process associated with non-self recognition. The prion forming domain (PFD) of HET-s adopts a β-solenoid amyloid structure characterized by the two fold repetition of an elementary triangular motif. [Het-s] induces cell death when interacting with HET-S, an allelic variant of HET-s. When templated by [Het-s], HET-S undergoes a trans-conformation, relocates to the cell membrane and induces toxicity.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here, comparing HET-s homologs from different species, we devise a consensus for the HET-s elementary triangular motif. We use this motif to screen genomic databases and find a match to the N-terminus of NWD2, a STAND protein, encoded by the gene immediately adjacent to het-S. STAND proteins are signal transducing ATPases which undergo ligand-induced oligomerisation. Homology modelling predicts that the NWD2 N-terminal region adopts a HET-s-like fold. We propose that upon NWD2 oligomerisation, these N-terminal extensions adopt the β-solenoid fold and template HET-S to adopt the amyloid fold and trigger toxicity. We extend this model to a putative prion, the σ infectious element in Nectria haematococca, because the s locus controlling propagation of σ also encodes a STAND protein and displays analogous features. Comparative genomic analyses indicate evolutionary conservation of these STAND/prion-like gene pairs, identify a number of novel prion candidates and define, in addition to the HET-s PFD motif, two distinct, novel putative PFD-like motifs.

Conclusions/Significance

We suggest the existence, in the fungal kingdom, of a widespread and evolutionarily conserved mode of signal transduction based on the transmission of an amyloid-fold from a NOD-like STAND receptor protein to an effector protein.     

Oxidative stress conditions increase the frequency of de novo formation of the yeast [PSI+] prion

Prions are self‐perpetuating amyloid protein aggregates which underlie various neurodegenerative diseases in mammals and heritable traits in yeast. The molecular basis of how yeast and mammalian prions form spontaneously into infectious amyloid‐like structures is poorly understood. We have explored the hypothesis that oxidative stress is a general trigger for prion formation using the yeast [PSI⁺] prion, which is the altered conformation of the Sup35 translation termination factor. We show that the frequency of [PSI⁺] prion formation is elevated under conditions of oxidative stress and in mutants lacking key antioxidants. We detect increased oxidation of Sup35 methionine residues in antioxidant mutants and show that overexpression of methionine sulphoxide reductase abrogates both the oxidation of Sup35 and its conversion to the [PSI⁺] prion. [PSI⁺] prion formation is particularly elevated in a mutant lacking the Sod1 Cu,Zn‐superoxide dismutase. We have used fluorescence microscopy to show that the de novo appearance of [PSI⁺] is both rapid and increased in frequency in this mutant. Finally, electron microscopy analysis of native Sup35 reveals that similar fibrillar structures are formed in both the wild‐type and antioxidant mutants. Together, our data indicate that oxidative stress is a general trigger of [PSI⁺] formation, which can be alleviated by antioxidant defenses.     

Nanomechanical properties of human prion protein amyloid as probed by force spectroscopy

Amyloids are associated with a number of protein misfolding disorders, including prion diseases. In this study, we used single-molecule force spectroscopy to characterize the nanomechanical properties and molecular structure of amyloid fibrils formed by human prion protein PrP90-231. Force-extension curves obtained by specific attachment of a gold-covered atomic force microscope tip to engineered Cys residues could be described by the worm-like chain model for entropic elasticity of a polymer chain, with the size of the N-terminal segment that could be stretched entropically depending on the tip attachment site. The data presented here provide direct information about the forces required to extract an individual monomer from the core of the PrP90-231 amyloid, and indicate that the β-sheet core of this amyloid starts at residue ∼164-169. The latter finding has important implications for the ongoing debate regarding the structure of PrP amyloid.     

Infectious Fold and Amyloid Propagation in Podospora anserina

Aggregation of amyloid proteins is involved in serious neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer disease and transmissible encephalopathies. The concept of an infectious protein (prion) proposed as the scrapie agent was successfully validated for several proteins of yeast and fungi. Ure2, Sup35 and Rnq1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and HET-s in Podospora anserina have been genetically, then biochemically identified as prion proteins. Studies on these proteins have brought critical informations on the mechanisms of prions appearance and propagation. The prion phenotype correlates with the aggregation state of these particular proteins. In vitro, the recombinant prion proteins form amyloid fibers characterized by a rich β-sheet content. In a previous work on the HET-s prion protein of Podospora we have demonstrated the infectivity of HET-s recombinant amyloid aggregates. More recently, the structural analysis of the prion domain of HET-s associated with in vivo mutagenesis allowed us to propose a model for the infectious fold of the HET-s prion domain. Further investigations to complete this model are discussed in this review as well as relevant questions about the [Het-s] system of Podospora anserina.     

The [RNQ+] prion: A model of both functional and pathological amyloid

The formation of fibrillar amyloid is most often associated with protein conformational disorders such as prion diseases, Alzheimer disease and Huntington disease. Interestingly, however, an increasing number of studies suggest that amyloid structures can sometimes play a functional role in normal biology. Several proteins form self-propagating amyloids called prions in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These unique elements operate by creating a reversible, epigenetic change in phenotype. While the function of the non-prion conformation of the Rnq1 protein is unclear, the prion form, [RNQ+], acts to facilitate the de novo formation of other prions to influence cellular phenotypes. The [RNQ+] prion itself does not adversely affect the growth of yeast, but the overexpression of Rnq1p can form toxic aggregated structures that are not necessarily prions. The [RNQ+] prion is also involved in dictating the aggregation and toxicity of polyglutamine proteins ectopically expressed in yeast. Thus, the [RNQ+] prion provides a tractable model that has the potential to reveal significant insight into the factors that dictate how amyloid structures are initiated and propagated in both physiological and pathological contexts.     

Amyloid Core Formed of Full-Length Recombinant Mouse Prion Protein Involves Sequence 127–143 but Not Sequence 107–126

The principal event underlying the development of prion disease is the conversion of soluble cellular prion protein (PrP^C) into its disease-causing isoform, PrP^Sc. This conversion is associated with a marked change in secondary structure from predominantly α-helical to a high β-sheet content, ultimately leading to the formation of aggregates consisting of ordered fibrillar assemblies referred to as amyloid. In vitro, recombinant prion proteins and short prion peptides from various species have been shown to form amyloid under various conditions and it has been proposed that, theoretically, any protein and peptide could form amyloid under appropriate conditions. To identify the peptide segment involved in the amyloid core formed from recombinant full-length mouse prion protein mPrP(23–230), we carried out seed-induced amyloid formation from recombinant prion protein in the presence of seeds generated from the short prion peptides mPrP(107–143), mPrP(107–126), and mPrP(127–143). Our results showed that the amyloid fibrils formed from mPrP(107–143) and mPrP(127–143), but not those formed from mPrP(107–126), were able to seed the amyloidogenesis of mPrP(23–230), showing that the segment residing in sequence 127–143 was used to form the amyloid core in the fibrillization of mPrP(23–230).     

Impact of N-glycosylation site variants during human PrP aggregation and fibril nucleation

Misfolding and aggregation of the human prion protein (PrP) cause neurodegenerative transmissible spongiform encephalopathies such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Mature native PrP is composed of 209 residues and is folded into a C-terminal globular domain (residues 125–209) comprising a small two-stranded β-sheet and three α-helices. The N-terminal domain (residues 23–124) is intrinsically disordered. Expression of truncated PrP (residues 90–231) is sufficient to cause prion disease and residues 90/100–231 is comprising the amyloid-like fibril core of misfolded infectious PrP. During PrP fibril formation under native conditions in vitro, the disordered N-terminal domain slows down fibril formation likely due to a mechanism of initial aggregation forming morphologically disordered aggregates. The morphological disordered aggregate is a transient phase. Nucleation of fibrils occurs from this initial aggregate. The aggregate phase is largely circumvented by seeding with preformed PrP fibrils. In vivo PrP is N-glycosylated at positions Asn181 and Asn197. Little is known about the importance of these positions and their glycans for PrP stability, aggregation and fibril formation. We have in this study taken a step towards that goal by mutating residues 181 and 197 for cysteines to study the positional impact on these processes. We have further by organic synthetic chemistry and chemical modification generated synthetic glycosylations in these positions. Our data shows that residue 181 when mutated to a cysteine is a key residue for self-chaperoning, rendering a trap in the initial aggregate preventing conformational changes towards amyloid fibril formation. Position 197 is less involved in the aggregate trapping and is more geared towards β-sheet structure conversion within amyloid fibrils. As expected, synthetic glycosylated 197 is less affected towards fibril formation compared to glycosylated 181. Our data are rather compatible with the parallel in-register intermolecular β-sheet model structure of the PrP90–231 fibril and sheds light on the misfolding transitions of PrP in vitro. We hypothesize that glycosylation of position 181 is a key site for prion strain differentiation in vivo.     

Influence of prion variant and yeast strain variation on prion-molecular chaperone requirements

Prions of budding yeast serve as a tractable model of amyloid behavior. Here we address the issue of the effect of yeast strain variation on prion stability, focusing also on the effect of amyloid conformation and the involvement of the co-chaperone Sis1, an essential J-protein partner of Hsp70. We found, despite an initial report to the contrary, that yeast strain background has little effect on the requirement for particular Sis1 domains for stable propagation of the prion [RNQ⁺], if the level of Sis1 expression is controlled. On the other hand, some variation in prion behavior was observed between yeast strains, in particular, the stability of certain [PSI⁺] variants. Future examination of such yeast strain-specific phenomena may provide useful insights into the basis of prion/chaperone dynamics.Key words: Hsp40, Ssa, heat-shock, protein misfolding, cell stress, Hsp104, PIN, saccharomyces, neurodegenerative disease     

Comparative assay of amyloid and prion contents in yeast cells

Amyloid contents were quantitatively assayed in crude yeast lysates treated with thioflavin T that specifically stained amyloid fibrils. We demonstrated that guanidine hydrochloride (GuHCl) treatment and overexpression of Hsp104p chaperone resulted in the elimination of the [PSI ⁺] factor and that the stable decline in amyloid contents followed from the reduced fluorescence intensity (IF) of thioflavin T. Overexpression of the SUP35 gene coding the protein prionizable to [PSI ⁺] results in the generation of [PSI ⁺] clones with increased thioflavin T IF. Transmission of [PSI ⁺] factor by cytoduction in crossings of recipients with low IF was also accompanied by stable IF enhancement in cytoductants, indicating enriched amyloid contents. Thus, in model experiments, modifying the quantity of [PSI ⁺] factor, a yeast prion amyloid, the change in thioflavin T IF corresponds to the expected shift in amyloid contents, the IF shift behaving as a cytoplasm hereditary determinant. It is concluded that thioflavin T IF allows for the quantitative estimation of amyloid contents in cells. The stable mitotic IF shift induced by agents affecting the prion composition permits the quantitative evaluation of prion contribution into amyloid pool. It is possible to assume that the monitoring of thiophlavin T IF shifts under the exposure of agents affecting prion pattern may be helpful to disclose previously unknown prions in yeast strains.     

Insights into intragenic and extragenic effectors of prion propagation using chimeric prion proteins

The study of fungal prion proteins affords remarkable opportunities to elucidate both intragenic and extragenic effectors of prion propagation. The yeast prion protein Sup35 and the self-perpetuating [PSI+] prion state is one of the best characterized fungal prions. While there is little sequence homology among known prion proteins, one region of striking similarity exists between Sup35p and the mammalian prion protein PrP. This region is comprised of roughly five octapeptide repeats of similar composition. The expansion of the repeat region in PrP is associated with inherited prion diseases. In order to learn more about the effects of PrP repeat expansions on the structural properties of a protein that undergoes a similar transition to a self-perpetuating aggregate, we generated chimeric Sup35-PrP proteins. Using both in vivo and in vitro systems we described the effect of repeat length on protein misfolding, aggregation, amyloid formation and amyloid stability. We found that repeat expansions in the chimeric prion proteins increase the propensity to initiate prion propagation and enhance the formation of amyloid fibers without significantly altering fiber stability.Key words: prion, yeast, sup35, PrP, nonsense suppression, translation termination, amyloid, repeatWe recently described a novel chimeric prion system that was designed to elucidate the consequences of one class of inherited prion disease mutations on protein folding.^1,2 We created a fusion between the mammalian prion protein PrP and the yeast prion protein Sup35p (Fig. 1). Sup35p is an essential translation termination factor in yeast. Interestingly, the majority of the protein can be sequestered into a self-propagating aggregate, the [PSI+] prion.³ Remarkably, when yeast are grown in normal laboratory conditions, the [PSI+] prion is not detrimental. In fact, the biological consequences of the switch from the [psi−] non-prion state to the [PSI+] prion state may be beneficial in terms of adaptation and evolution.⁴ Importantly, the prion state of Sup35p can be readily detected in vivo by monitoring the reduced function of the translation termination factor when the protein is propagating as a prion aggregate.³ In addition, several methods have been developed to not only follow the propagation of the prion, but also to control the propagation and promote prion induction and loss (curing).⁵ Therefore, in addition to simply being a fascinating biological problem in of itself, the [PSI+] prion in yeast affords the ability to further elucidate both intragenic and extragenic effectors of prion biology.Open in a separate windowFigure 1Schematic representation of the yeast protein Sup35p and the mammalian prion protein PrP highlighting the position of the oligopeptide repeat domain (ORD). The amino acid sequence represents the consensus for a single repeat. Numbers shown represent the amino acid position of the beginning and the end of each ORD. The numbers above the schematic represent the original PrP amino acid positioning and the numbers below represent the original Sup35p amino acid sequence positions.Several prions have now been identified and interestingly, there is little sequence homology between the proteins to suggest that only one type of sequence can form a self-propagating aggregate.^6–8 In vitro studies suggest that many proteins can form amyloids under the appropriate conditions.⁹ The fact that only a small percentage of proteins propagate as prions in vivo may be partly a consequence of physiological conditions being adequate to promote amyloid formation with those particular sequences. It is unclear what the precise distinction between prion and amyloid is at this time, but localization alone may preclude some amyloidogenic proteins from being “prion proteins” per se.¹⁰The sequence context that permits a protein to adopt a prion conformation in vivo is unclear. Several of the identified prion proteins have a domain that is enriched in glutamine and asparagine (Q/N) residues, but this is not true of all prion proteins.⁷ Our recent study demonstrates that the Q/N character of the Sup35p prion-forming domain can be significantly reduced, yet still propagate as a prion.¹ This was also found recently in another prion protein chimera created and expressed in yeast.⁶ These studies suggest that the lack of stable secondary structure may be one of the defining features of a prion-forming domain. One of the striking sequence similarities that does exist between two prion proteins occurs in an oligopeptide repeat region found in Sup35p and PrP.¹¹ Previous data clearly demonstrated that the Sup35p repeats are important for [PSI+] prion propagation.^12–15 The deletion of a single repeat from the wild type SUP35 sequence results in the loss of normal [PSI+] prion propagation.¹² Moreover, the addition of two extra repeats of Sup35p sequence served to enhance the formation of the [PSI+] prion.¹³ The expansion of the analogous repeat domain in the mammalian prion protein PrP is associated with an inherited form of prion disease.¹⁶ Since the repeat regions of Sup35p and PrP are similar in size and character, we wanted to determine if the Sup35p oligopeptide repeat region could be substituted with that of PrP. Indeed, the PrP repeats in the context of Sup35p supported the propagation of the [PSI+] prion in yeast.^1,17 Strikingly, we found phenotypic changes that occurred in a repeat length-dependent manner that suggested that the repeat expansions associated with disease result in an increase in the aggregation propensity but do not necessarily dictate only one type of aggregate structure.¹More recently, we verified some of these results in vitro.² These data are in agreement with other studies on the effect of repeat expansions.^18,19 Taking the analysis one step further, we demonstrated that the stability of the amyloid fibers formed with the repeat-expanded proteins did not differ significantly. A very interesting observation that we made was that the formation of amyloid fibers by the longest repeat-expanded chimera (SP14NM) followed drastically different kinetics compared to the chimera containing the wild type number of repeats (SP5NM).² In unseeded reactions, SP14NM did not show a lag phase during the course of fiber formation whereas SP5NM displayed a characteristic lag phase. Furthermore, the morphology of the amyloid fibers visualized by EM was different between SP14NM and SP5NM. SP14NM fibers were curvy and clumped but SP5NM fibers were long and straight. The correlation between the kinetics and the morphology of amyloid formation of SP14NM and SP5NM is reminiscent of fibers formed by β2-microglobulin (β2m) protein in different conditions.²⁰ At pH 3.6, β2m formed curvy, worm-like fibers with no apparent lag phase. In contrast, long, straight fibers were formed at pH 2.5 and had a distinct lag phase. Analysis of the β2m fibers formed at pH 3.6 using mass spectrometric techniques identified species ranging from monomer to 13-mer. This suggested that the fibers were formed by monomer addition. On the other hand, oligomers larger than tetramers were not formed during fiber formation at pH 2.5. Based on these data the authors propose that β2m forms fibers in a nucleation-independent manner at pH 3.6, but fiber formation at pH 2.5 follows a nucleation-dependent mechanism. We suggest that the mechanism underlying SP5NM and repeat-expanded SP14NM fiber formation is similar to β2m fibers formed at pH 2.5 and pH 3.6, respectively. It will be interesting to determine if disease-associated mutations in amyloidogenic proteins alter the pathway whereby amyloid formation occurs and how that process plays a role in pathogenesis.In our in vivo study,¹ we highlighted a unique feature of the longest Sup35-PrP chimera that related to the ability of the protein to adopt multiple self-perpetuating prion conformations more readily than wild type Sup35p. We suggest that this may be an important aspect of prion biology as it relates to inherited disease. If the repeat-expanded proteins can adopt multiple conformations that aggregate, then that may contribute to the large amount of variation observed in pathology and disease progression in this class of inherited prion diseases.^21,22We also found that the spontaneous conversion of the repeat-expanded Sup35-PrP chimera into a prion state was significantly increased. However, this conversion required another aggregated protein in vivo, the [RNQ+] prion. In vitro, the prion-forming domain of the chimera showed a similar trend with the longer repeat lengths enhancing the ability of the protein to form amyloid fibers. The chimera with repeat expansions (8, 11 or 14 repeats) formed fibers very quickly as compared to that with the wild type number of repeats (5). While this correlates with the in vivo data in that both systems demonstrate an increased level of conversion with the repeat expansion, the systems are very different with respect to their requirement for a different “seed” to initiate the prion conversion. So, how does the [RNQ+] prion influence [PSI+]? At the moment, that isn''t entirely clear. Susan Liebman and colleagues discovered another epigenetic factor in yeast, [PIN+], which was important for the de novo induction of [PSI+].^23–25 Several years later, the [RNQ+] prion²⁶ was found to be that factor in the commonly used [PSI+] laboratory strains, but they also found that the overexpression of other proteins could reproduce the effect.²⁵ Hence, [RNQ+] can be [PIN+], and may be the primary epigenetic element that influences [PSI+] induction in yeast, but need not be in every case. Two models were proposed to explain the ability of [RNQ+] to influence the induction of [PSI+].^25,27 One suggested that there is a direct templating effect where the aggregated state of the Rnq1 protein in the [RNQ+] prion serves as a seed for the direct physical association and aggregation of Sup35p and initiates [PSI+]. The second postulated that there is an inhibitor of aggregation in cells that is titrated out by the presence of another aggregated protein. Recent experimental evidence suggests that the templating model may explain at least part of the mechanism of action behind the [RNQ+] prion inducing the formation of [PSI+].^28,29Why is [RNQ+] required for the in vivo conversion of the repeatexpanded chimera that forms amyloid on its own very efficiently in vitro? Interestingly, we found that the [RNQ+] prion per se is not required. We overexpressed the Rnq1 protein from a constitutive high promoter (pGPD-RNQ1) and found that Rnq1p aggregated in the cells but did not induce the [RNQ+] prion. That is, the cells were still [rnq−] and did not genetically transmit the aggregated state of the protein. However, even these non-prion aggregates of Rnq1p served to enhance the induction of the chimeric prions. Therefore, either the [RNQ+] prion or an aggregate of Rnq1 protein is sufficient, which is in line with previous studies that demonstrated that some proteins that aggregate when overexpressed can also enhance the induction of [PSI+].²⁵ Also of note, recent data suggests that the requirement of [RNQ+] for the induction of Sup35p aggregation in vivo can be overcome by very long polyglutamine or glutamine/tyrosine stretches fused to the non-prion forming domain of Sup35p.³⁰ These fusions may alter protein-protein interactions or destabilize the non-prion structure of Sup35p in such a manner that the [RNQ+] prion seed is no longer required to form [PSI+] de novo. Indeed, the non-polymerizing state of some of the fusion proteins was shown to be very unstable.So, what is the important difference between our in vitro and in vivo systems in the prion conversion? Obviously there are many candidates. First, the full length Sup35 protein may alter the conversion properties since a large part of the molecule is the structured C terminal domain. The C terminal domain may influence the initiation of prion propagation in vivo and that is not a factor in the in vitro system. Second, the influences of co-translational folding and potentially some initial unfolding of the prion-forming domain are not present since the in vitro system starts with denatured protein. Third, the environmental influences are clearly different. The molecular crowding effects and chaperones that are required for prion propagation in vivo are not required for the formation of amyloid in vitro. Finally, it is unclear if amyloid structures similar to those formed with the prion-forming domain in vitro actually exist in yeast. Certainly there is some correlation between the structures since aggregated Sup35 protein from [PSI+] cell lysates can seed amyloid formation in vitro^31,32 and the fibers formed in vitro can be transformed into [psi−] cells and cause conversion to [PSI+].³³ Nevertheless, we find it interesting that the expansion of the repeat region can have a tremendous effect on amyloid formation in vitro yet still cannot overcome the requirement for [RNQ+] for conversion in vivo. The presence of co-aggregating or cross-seeding proteins may play a role in the sporadic appearance or progression of neurodegenerative diseases and the interconnected yeast prions [RNQ+] and [PSI+] may provide a model system for elucidating the mechanism underlying such effects.