Determining the origin and age of the Westland beech (Nothofagus) gap, New Zealand, using fungus beetle genetics

The formation and maintenance of the Nothofagus beech gap in the South Island, New Zealand, has been the focus of biogeographical debate since the 1920s. We examine the historical process of gap formation by investigating the population genetics of fungus beetles: Brachynopus scutellaris (Staphylinidae) inhabits logs and is absent from the beech gap, and Hisparonia hystrix (Nitidulidae) is contiguous through the gap and is found commonly on sooty mould growing on several plant species. Both species show distinctive northern and southern haplotype distributions while H. hystrix recolonized the gap as shown by definitive mixing. B. scutellaris shows two major haplotype clades with strong geographical concordance, and unlike H. hystrix, has clearly defined lineages that can be partitioned for molecular dating. Based on coalescence dating methods, disjunct lineages of B. scutellaris indicate that the gap was formed less than 200 000 years ago. Phylogenetic imprints from both species reveal similar patterns of population divergence corresponding to recent glacial cycles, favouring a glacial explanation for the origin of the gap. Post-gap colonization by H. hystrix may have been facilitated by the spread of Leptospermum scoparium host trees to the area, and they may be better at dispersing than B. scutellaris which may be constrained by fungal host and/or microhabitat. The gap-excluded species B. scutellaris is found in both beech and podocarp-broadleaf forests flanking the Westland gap and its absence in the gap may be related to incomplete recolonization following glacial retreat. We also discuss species status and an ancient polymorphism within B. scutellaris .     

Pristine New Zealand forest soil is a strong methane sink

Methanotrophic bacteria oxidize methane (CH₄) in forest soils that cover ～30% of Earth's land surface. The first measurements for a pristine Southern Hemisphere forest are reported here. Soil CH₄ oxidation rate averaged 10.5±0.6 kg CH₄ ha^?1 yr^?1, with the greatest rates in dry warm soil (up to 17 kg CH₄ ha^?1 yr^?1). Methanotrophic activity was concentrated beneath the organic horizon at 50–100 mm depth. Water content was the principal regulator of (r²=0.88) from the most common value of field capacity to less than half of this when the soil was driest. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that soil temperature was not very influential. However, inverse co‐variability confounded the separation of soil water and temperature effects in situ. Fick's law explained the role of water content in regulating gas diffusion and substrate supply to the methanotrophs and the importance of pore size distribution and tortuosity. This analysis also showed that the chambers used in the study did not affect the oxidation rate measurements. The soil was always a net sink for atmospheric CH₄ and no net CH₄ (or nitrous oxide, N₂O) emissions were measured over the 17‐month long study. For New Zealand, national‐scale extrapolation of our data suggested the potential to offset 13% of CH₄ emissions from ca. 90 M ruminant animals. Our average was about 6.5 times higher than rates reported for most Northern Hemisphere forest soils. This very high was attributed to the lack of anthropogenic disturbance for at least 3000–5000 years and the low rate of atmospheric nitrogen deposition. Our truly baseline data could represent a valid preagricultural, preindustrial estimate of the soil sink for temperate latitudes.     

A comparison of realised niche relations of species in New Zealand and Britain

Summary Many plant species prominent in the native vegetation of the dry shingle banks at Dungeness (Britain) are also prominent as exotics in the dry Upper Clutha catchment (New Zealand). To examine the realised niche relations of these species, vegetation was sampled in the two areas. Inverse classification and ordination were used to determine the relative beta niches of the species in the two areas. There was little agreement; it seems that the exotic species in the Upper Clutha were pre-adapted to different niches from those in their native range.     

Topography and soil content contribute to plant community composition and structure in subtropical evergreen-deciduous broadleaved mixed forests

Topography and soil factors are known to play crucial roles in the species composition of plant communities in subtropical evergreen-deciduous broadleaved mixed forests. In this study, we used a systematic quantitative approach to classify plant community types in the subtropical forests of Hubei Province (central China), and then quantified the relative contribution of drivers responsible for variation in species composition and diversity. We classified the subtropical forests in the study area into 12 community types. Of these, species diversity indices of three communities were significantly higher than those of others. In each community type, species richness, abundance, basal area and importance values of evergreen and deciduous species were different. In most community types, deciduous species richness was higher than that of evergreen species. Linear regression analysis showed that the dominant factors that affect species composition in each community type are elevation, slope, aspect, soil nitrogen content, and soil phosphorus content. Furthermore, structural equation modeling analysis showed that the majority of variance in species composition of plant communities can be explained by elevation, aspect, soil water content, litterfall, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. Thus, the major factors that affect evergreen and deciduous species distribution across the 12 community types in subtropical evergreen-deciduous broadleaved mixed forests include elevation, slope and aspect, soil total nitrogen content, soil total phosphorus content, soil available nitrogen content and soil available phosphorus content.     

Phylogenetic relationships of New Zealand Asteraceae inferred from ITS sequences

Forty-five sequences from members of all genera of Asteraceae indigenous to New Zealand and 50 published sequences representing the tribal diversity in the family were analyzed to assess the utility of ITS sequences to resolve phylogenetic relationships. Previous studies using chloroplast DNA sequences and morphology provided support for several clades in the Asteraceae, yet the relationships among some of these were uncertain. The results from ITS analysis were largely consistent with these earlier studies. The New Zealand species are included in at least six clades, most of these corresponding to recognized tribes. Our results have also clarified the tribal affinities of a few anomalous genera. Haastia, previously aligned with the Gnaphalieae or the Astereae, is nested in the Senecioneae. Centipeda, previously included in the Astereae or Anthemideae, emerges near the Heliantheae. The relationships of Abrotanella remain unresolved. Received August 8, 2001 Accepted November 6, 2001     

Patterns in the diversity and distribution of epiphytes and vines in a New Zealand forest

Abstract Plants that rely on other plants for support (i.e. epiphytes and vines) are common in many forest ecosystems. However, they are poorly understood relative to terrestrial plants, especially in the Southern Hemisphere. To help bridge this gap, we evaluated the diversity and distribution of vascular epiphytes and vines on seven common tree species in a conifer‐broadleaf forest on New Zealand's North Island. Ground‐based surveys of 274 host trees were used to test whether epiphyte and vine diversity increased with tree diameter, and whether diversity‐diameter relationships differed among host tree species. Occurrence patterns of individual epiphyte and vine species were also assessed. We first evaluated the accuracy of ground‐based inventories by comparing surveys of trees made from the ground to those made from a canopy walkway. On average, 1 in 10 species of epiphytes and vines were unseen from the ground. However, sampling accuracy did not differ among the three host tree species growing along the walkway, suggesting unbiased comparisons could be made between hosts. Results from ground‐based surveys showed that species diversity of epiphytes and vines increased with host tree diameter. However, epiphytes showed stronger diversity‐diameter relationships than vines. Epiphyte diversity increased markedly in four host species and less strongly in the remaining three host species. Conversely, vines showed weak diversity‐diameter relationships in all host species. Occurrence patterns of individual species helped to explain diversity‐diameter relationships. All common epiphyte species occurred more frequently on large trees, regardless of host species, but occurrence patterns in most vine species were unrelated to tree size. Rather, the vines often showed strong host ‘preferences’. Overall results illustrate a rich diversity of distributional patterns in New Zealand's epiphytes and vines, and suggest that a similarly diverse set of ecological and evolutionary processes are responsible for them.     

New species of Euptyctima (Acari,Oribatida) from New Zealand

Abstract

Oribotritia contortula n. sp., O. contraria n. sp., O. teretis n. sp., Rhysotritia bifurcata n. sp., Microtritia contraria n. sp., M. glabrata n. sp., Hoplophthiracarus bisulcus n. sp., Austrophthiracarus pulchellus n. sp., and Notophthiracarus claviger n. sp. are described from New Zealand.

The genera of Oribotritia Jacot, Rhysotritia Märkel & Meyer, Hoplophthiracarus Jacot, and Austrophthiracarus Balogh & Mahunka are new records for New Zealand.     

Biogeographic area relationships in southern New Zealand: a cladistic analysis of Lepidoptera distributions

ABSTRACT. Recently, attention has been directed toward the application of cladistic techniques to reconstruct the history of areas from species distribution data. In this study, hypotheses of area relationships for southern New Zealand are generated from lepidopteran distribution data analysed at two taxonomic levels. Data are shown to possess cladistic structure and area relationships presented here are consistent with the geological history of the southern region of New Zealand. Our results suggest a recolonization of inland lowland regions from the south following a period of extinction during the early Pliocene. Analysis of selected data including only flightless or locally endemic species resulted in little resolution of area relationships but topologies were significantly congruent with a total species dataset. Hypotheses generated from this study are open to testing with congruence analysis using independent species phylogenies.     

Vertical gradients in leaf trait diversity in a New Zealand forest

Leaves come in a remarkable diversity of sizes and shapes. However, spatial patterns in leaf trait diversity are rarely investigated and poorly resolved. We used a hierarchical approach to evaluate vertical variability in leaf morphology (i.e., leaf trait diversity) in 16 common tree and shrub species inhabiting a New Zealand forest. Height-related heterogeneity in leaf area, specific leaf area, circularity and length to width ratio was analyzed at three scales: (1) among leaves within plants, (2) among plants within species and (3) among species within functional groups (i.e., trees vs. shrubs). Results were scale dependent. Among-leaf morphological diversity was unrelated to plant height. Among-individual morphological diversity increased with the average height of each species, indicating that taller plant species express a greater range of leaf traits than shorter species. Among-species morphological diversity was higher in shrubs than in trees. We hypothesize that scale-dependent patterns in leaf trait diversity result from scale-dependent adaptations to forest environmental conditions. As trees grow from the forest floor into the canopy, they are exposed to a range of environmental conditions, which may select for a range of leaf traits through ontogeny. Conversely, shrubs never reach the forest canopy and may instead be differentially adapted to suites of environmental conditions associated with different stages of forest recovery from tree-fall disturbances. Overall results indicate that vertical patterns in leaf trait diversity exist. However, their strength and directionality are strongly scale-dependent, suggesting that different processes govern leaf shape diversity at different levels of ecological organization.     

Recovery of three New Zealand rural streams as they pass through native forest remnants

Three small second order streams draining pastoralfarming catchments in the Kaipara region northwest ofAuckland City, New Zealand, were chosen to investigatewhether native forest remnants can restoreforest-stream characteristics to streams in openpasture, and to determine what length the remnantsmust be for this to occur. Changes in physical,chemical and biological characteristics of thestreams, in particular the benthic macroinvertebratecommunity, were measured over distances of up to 600 mfrom the point each stream entered a remnant of nativeforest, and the results compared with those of anundisturbed forested stream.Over 600 m the benthic macroinvertebrate communitychanged from a more enrichment-tolerant to a moreclean-water fauna and became similar to the Controlstream in terms of taxonomic richness andMacroinvertebrate Community Index (MCI). However itstill showed minor effects of enrichment, inparticular elevated overall densities ofinvertebrates. Temperature and dissolved oxygenreturned rapidly (within 300 m) to forest-streamlevels on entering the forest remnant. Nitrate,nitrite, phosphate and suspended solids producedvariable results but there was some evidence ofsignificant instream processing over 600 m.     

Conservation status of New Zealand frogs, 2009

Abstract

A reappraisal of the conservation status of the New Zealand frog fauna is presented using the 2008 version of the New Zealand Threat Classification System. Of New Zealand's four extant endemic species, three are judged to be ‘Threatened’ (Leiopelma hamiltoni being ‘Nationally Critical’, and L. pakeka and L. archeyi being ‘Nationally Vulnerable’) and one ‘At Risk’ (L. hochstetteri ‘Declining’). Three Leiopelma species are listed as extinct—they are known from bone deposits in caves throughout the country until some time in the last 1000 years. Three introduced and naturalised Litoria species are abundant in New Zealand although two (L. aurea and L. raniformis) are threatened in their country of origin (Australia). An additional unidentified frog taxon from northern Great Barrier Island is listed as ‘Data Deficient’.     

Diversification of New Zealand weta (Orthoptera: Ensifera: Anostostomatidae) and their relationships in Australasia

New Zealand taxa from the Orthopteran family Anostostomatidae have been shown to consist of three broad groups, Hemiandrus (ground weta), Anisoura/Motuweta (tusked weta) and Hemideina-Deinacrida (tree-giant weta). The family is also present in Australia and New Caledonia, the nearest large land masses to New Zealand. All genera are endemic to their respective countries except Hemiandrus that occurs in New Zealand and Australia. We used nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data to study within genera and among species-level genetic diversity within New Zealand and to examine phylogenetic relationships of taxa in Australasia. We found the Anostostomatidae to be monophyletic within Ensifera, and justifiably distinguished from the Stenopelmatidae among which they were formerly placed. However, the New Zealand Anostostomatidae are not monophyletic with respect to Australian and New Caledonian species in our analyses. Two of the New Zealand groups have closer allies in Australia and one in New Caledonia. We carried out maximum-likelihood and Bayesian analyses to reveal several well supported subgroupings. Our analysis included the most extensive sampling to date of Hemiandrus species and indicate that Australian and New Zealand Hemiandrus are not monophyletic. We used molecular dating approaches to test the plausibility of alternative biogeographic hypotheses for the origin of the New Zealand anostostomatid fauna and found support for divergence of the main clades at, or shortly after, Gondwanan break-up, and dispersal across the Tasman much more recently.     

Alginate content and composition ofMacrocystis pyrifera from New Zealand

Tissue samples ofMacrocystis pyrifera from 2 sites in southern New Zealand and harvested over a period of 12 months were analysed for alginate content and composition (M:G ratio). Plants were divided into three frond classes of different length and each frond was further separated into age categories of blades and stipes (viz young, mature and old blades; mature and old stipes). Within each size class, younger blades had higher alginate content than older blades. Stipes did not show such variation with age. Alginate from younger blades and stipes had higher proportions of mannuronic acid residues than those from old blades and stipes. The range of M:G ratios for age categories of either blades or stipes from longer fronds was greater than those for smaller fronds. Alginate content and M:G ratios of stipes were always higher than for blades. The difference between M:G ratios of blades and stipes was greater for smaller fronds than for longer ones. Differences between collection sites and seasonal trends are also discussed.author for correspondence     

Biography,Authenticity and Personalised Post-Mortem Practices in Aotearoa/New Zealand

Current thanatology discourse details a new ethos of openness transforming death-related practices, accentuating a shift to personalised rituals, authenticity and expressive grief. Drawing on ethnographic interviews with mourners and funeral professionals, this article explores these putative post-mortem changes and critically assesses the claims and counterclaims concerning funerary arrangements in New Zealand. While underscoring the complexity of mortuary practices, this study explicates the varying notions of authenticity that pervade the funeral discourse. Although funeral professionals emphasised the significance of grief and bereavement processes characterised by a need for honesty and transparency, bereaved participants proffered an alternative interpretation of authenticity that privileged biographical coherence and the need to confer transcendence to the dead. These findings not only emphasise the inadequacies of the aforementioned representations of post-mortem change, but elucidate the context-specific conceptualisations of authenticity and the continuing relationships between the living and the dead in Aotearoa/New Zealand.     

新西兰果园规范化栽培技术及发展趋势

报道了新西兰水果主产区果园普遍采用的规范化栽培技术系统,包括果园布局、果树定植与枝条定向牵引、果产品全程质量管理、果园生态环境管理等技术,并分析了该技术的特点、目的和作用,对新西兰果园近年在栽培技术上的优化和创新进行了总结,提出了新西兰果园栽培的发展趋势。     

The New Zealand common smelt: biology and ecology

The common smelt is one of the most widespread indigenous freshwater fishes in New Zealand. One other member of the family Retropinnidae, Stokellia anisodon (Stokell), is present but is confined to a small region of the South Island. There are many diadromous as well as river and lake resident populations, the latter, sometimes a result of introductions to serve as forage fish for trout. Diadromous smelt spawn during austral autumn–winter on sand bars of lower riverine reaches. Larval stages inhabit coastal marine waters, and the postlarvae to immature stages re‐enter rivers and some lowland lakes. Diadromous smelt are distinguished from lowland lake resident forms by high vertebral but low gill raker numbers and larger size and from those present in some isolated waters, by high vertebral numbers alone. Lake or reservoir resident smelt usually spawn in austral spring–summer on sandy shallows at stream mouths or along shorelines. Verified smelt ages (otolith analyses) indicate that in some populations most smelt mature and spawn after c. 1 year. Adult smelt feed on a spectrum of primarily invertebrate animals ranging from small zooplankters to insects and occasionally small fishes. Smelt are a major prey for both brown trout and rainbow trout. Adult smelt are a minor food for the Maori people. As postlarvae they are a component of a few 'whitebait' fisheries. Most smelt populations are increasingly affected by environmental changes induced by human activities. Although many studies have examined problems affecting smelt, further effort is required, along with more basic research.     

Tree species composition and environmental relationships in a Neotropical swamp forest in Southeastern Brazil

We examined the relationships between topography, soil properties and tree species composition in a Neotropical swamp forest in southeastern Brazil. Plots were sampled in the forest, encompassing three different soil ground water regimes along the topographical declivity. All non-climbing plant individuals with trunk height >1.3 m were sampled. A canonical correspondence analysis—CCA—of the species–environmental relationships grouped tree species according to drainage and chemical soil conditions. A total of 86 species were found, being 77 species in the inferior, 40 species in the intermediate and 35 species in the superior topographic section. Some species were among the 10 most abundant ones, both in the overall sampled area and in each topographical section, with alternation events occurring only with their abundance position. However, substantial differences in floristic composition between sections were detected in a fine spatial scale, due to higher number of species, diversity index (H′) and species unique (exclusives) in the inferior topographic section. These higher values can be attributed to its higher spatial heterogeneity that included better drained and seasonally waterlogged soils, higher soil fertility and lower acidity. The increase of the soil water saturation and the uniform conditions derived from the superficial water layer has led to a lower number of species and an increase on the palm trees abundance in the intermediate and superior sections. Our results showed that at a small spatial scale niche differentiation must be an important factor related to the increase of the local diversity. The wide distribution of the most abundant species in the studied area and the increase of local diversity corroborate the pattern of distribution of species in larger scales of swamp forests, in which the most abundant species repeat themselves in high densities in different remnants. However, the floristic composition of each remnant is strongly variable, contributing to the increase of regional diversity.     

Stratigraphy of the fossil Chironomidae (Diptera) from Lake Grasmere,South Island,New Zealand,during the last 6000 years

The fossil chironomid fauna of a 3.26 m long sediment core from Lake Grasmere has been analysed. The fossil chironomid taxa belong mainly to the subgroups Tanytarsini, Orthocladiinae, Chironomini, and Tanyphodinae. Heptagyini and Podonominae were not common. Tanytarsini were the dominant component of the fauna with Corynocera sp. as the most abundant species during pre-Polynesian times (before 1000 yr BP). The abundance and the composition of the fossil chironomid taxa have fluctuated markedly over the last 6000 years. These fluctuations could be partly correlated with changes in the stratigraphy of the sediments in the core. Layers of highly minerogenic sediment contained the lowest numbers of remains whereas high abundances were found in the sections of the core with the greatest proportion of organic matter. It is suggested that major shifts in the structure of the chironomid community have been mainly caused by changes in the hydrology and inflows of the lake, and the rate and type of sedimentation, in addition to variations in lake productivity.