A new species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eriotheca</Emphasis> (Malvaceae,Bombacoideae) from Bahia,Brazil

A new species of Eriotheca (Bombacoideae, Malvaceae) is described and illustrated. The species, Eriotheca bahiensis, is known only from Bahia, Brazil in southern Bahian forest (floresta pluvial dos tabuleiros) and is probably restricted to that habitat. A key including the new and morphologically similar species is also presented.     

The ethnobotany of Chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius SSP.Aconitifolius breckon): A nutritious Maya Vegetable

Chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius ssp. aconitifolius Breckon) is a domesticated leafy green vegetable of the Maya region of Guatemala, Belize, southeast Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula, and parts of Honduras. Though relatively unknown outside of this area, evidence suggests that chaya was of significant importance to ancient peoples of the Yucatán Peninsula and perhaps elsewhere within the Maya region. Here we review what little research has been done on this impressive plant, as well as recount our own ethnobotanical investigation into its use as a food plant and medicine, and discuss its botany, nomenclature, and agricultural use. Due to its ease of cultivation, potential productivity, and above all its substantial nutritional value, we propose chaya as a potential crop for areas outside Mesoamerica.

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La Etnobotanica de Chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius ssp.aconitifolius Breckon): Una Verdura Nutritiva Maya

Resumen  La chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius ssp.aconitifolius Breckon) es una verdura domesticada de la región Maya de Guatemala, Belice, el Sureste de México y la península de Yucatán, y partes de Honduras. Aunque es poco conocida afuera de esta región, la evidencia sugiere que la chaya era una planta importante para los antiguos Mayas de la peninsula de Yucatan, y tal vez en otras partes de la región Maya. A continuatión presentamos la poca investigation realizada sobre esta sorprendente planta, a la vez presentamos resultados de nuestra investigatión etnobotánica acerca de su uso como verdura y medicina, y discutimos su botdnica, nomenclatura, y su agricultura. Dada la facilidad de cultivarla, su productividad potential, y sobre todo su alto valor nutritivo, proponemos la chaya como cultivo potential para regiones afuera de Mesoamérica.

     

A Zooarchaeological Test for Dietary Resource Depression at the End of the Classic Period in the Petexbatun,Guatemala

Zooarchaeological analyses of animal remains from the Petexbatun sites in the Guatemalan lowlands provide proxy evidence to test a hypothesis of dietary insufficiency during the Maya “collapse.” Ecological foraging theory and resource depression models are used to interpret animal use patterns before and after the disintegration of the Petexbatun polity at the end of the Late Classic period (around a.d. 800). Environmental failure models of the Maya “collapse” at the end of the Late Classic imply that a dietary insufficiency, and particularly a lack of animal resources, was associated with the political and social transitions of this period. However, the results of this zooarchaeological study do not support this hypothesis and point instead to very limited early reductions of only highest-ranked dietary species. The lack of evidence for specific resource depression associated directly with the period of political collapse does not support a model of environmental failure during political disintegration in the Petexbatun. Correlations are found between animal use patterns and the specifics of site size and periods of peak political activity, suggesting that small-scale resource depressions might have resulted at some sites during early periods of human population growth, site expansion, and increasing political activity.     

Farm Households and Land Use in a Core Conservation Zone of the Maya Biosphere Reserve,Guatemala

This paper employs cross-tabular analysis, and multivariate and logistic regression to explore demographic, political-economic, socioeconomic, and ecological patterns of farm households and land use outcomes in an emergent agricultural frontier: the Sierra de Lacandón National Park (SLNP)-a core conservation zone of the Maya Biosphere Reserve (MBR), Petén, Guatemala. Data were obtained from a 1998 probability sample of 241 farm households, the first large detailed household land use survey in Guatemala’s Selva Maya-the largest lowland tropical forest in Central America. Virtually all settler households were poor maize farmers who colonized the SLNP in search of land for subsistence. While they faced similar ecological and economic conditions, land use strategies and patterns of forest clearing varied with demographic, household, and farm characteristics. Findings support and refute elements from previous frontier land use theory and offer policy implications for conservation and development initiatives in the Maya Forest specifically, and in tropical agricultural frontiers in general.

Assessing the impact of ancient Maya animal use

Tropical forest animals are at high risk worldwide as a result of over-exploitation and forest clearing. Zooarchaeological studies of animal use by the ancient Maya of the southern lowland regions of Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, and Mexico provide long-term historical information on animal populations under conditions of human population growth and climatic change that is valuable to both archaeology and conservation biology. In this paper, zooarchaeological data from 35 chronologically defined faunal sub-samples recovered from 25 ancient Maya archaeological sites are used to assess the effects of ancient hunting on animal populations of the Maya region between the Preclassic and Colonial periods (2000 BC–AD 1697). The variations in species abundance are used as a proxy for describing changes in ancient Maya hunting practices and hunted animal populations, interpreted on the basis of hunting efficiency models from foraging ecology. A significant reduction in the proportion of large mammals, particularly Odocoileus virginianus, in zooarchaeological assemblages between the Late Classic (AD 600–850) and Terminal Classic/Postclassic periods (AD 850–1519) suggest that over-hunting during the Late Classic may have led to a reduction in availability of these animals to the ancient Maya hunters in the later periods. This finding is discussed in relation to important social and environmental variations to evaluate the impact of hunting and other factors such as forest clearance and climate on ancient animal populations in the Maya region.     

Where There is no Patient: An Anthropological Treatment of a Biomedical Category

This work anthropologically applies the concept of ‘personhood’ to the Western biomedical patient role, and through cross-cultural comparisons with wellness-seeker roles (e.g. among the Maya of Guatemala and others) it seeks to discern the implications for global healthcare of assuming the universality of the “patient” role. Here, particular ethnographic attention is given to the presumption of the “patient” role in places and situations where, because of cultural and linguistic variation in local wellness-seeker roles and practices, there may be no “patient.” It is hoped that establishing the biomedical patient role (with the clinical expectations, communicative and comportment practices that prefigure it) as acquired rather than intuitive, will help redirect cultural competence to the acquisition of patienthood, broadening it from an endless accrual of cultural inventories by physicians. Also it aims to shift existing biomedical associations of cultural variations in wellness-seeking away from a priori assessments of clinical defiance towards deeper understandings of the kinds of cultural differences that may make the difference treatment outcomes.

Archaeological Evidence of the Cultural Importance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agave spp</Emphasis>. in Pre-Hispanic Colima,Mexico

Archaeological Evidence of the Cultural Importance of Agave spp . in Pre-Hispanic Colima, Mexico. Production of agave-based food and fermented alcoholic beverages was highly relevant culturally and socially in pre-European contact western Mesoamerica. It has been hypothesized that agave distillation in western Mexico began in Colima in the early Colonial Era through adaptation of introduced Filipino techniques. Archaeological evidence is presented confirming the cultural and social significance of agave in Colima before contact, one of the fundamental conditions supporting this hypothesis. An analysis of circular subterranean stone structures in residential and ceremonial contexts (Classic and Postclassic periods: 200–1500 common era [CE]), and a comparison with stone ovens currently used to cook agave for the creation of spirits, indicate these structures were probably used for preparing food, including agave. Analysis of funerary ceramic vessel offerings with agave images (Colima phase: 400–600 CE) are reported for the first time. Their characteristics, and those of the associated burials and tombs, suggest those buried were agave growers or alcoholic beverage producers who fulfilled relevant roles in the society. Most of the agave images probably represent Agave angustifolia Lem and its cultivation. During the Colonial Era, the cultural and social relevance of agaves almost disappeared in Colima, possibly due to drastic reductions in the native human population, changing land use practices, and prohibitions against the production and sale of native alcoholic beverages.     

Genomic insights on the ethno-history of the Maya and the ‘Ladinos’ from Guatemala

Background

Guatemala is a multiethnic and multilingual country located in Central America. The main population groups separate ‘Ladinos’ (mixed Native American-African-Spanish), and Native indigenous people of Maya descent. Among the present-day Guatemalan Maya, there are more than 20 different ethnic groups separated by different languages and cultures. Genetic variation of these communities still remains largely unexplored. The principal aim of this study is to explore the genetic variability of the Maya and ‘Ladinos’ from Guatemala by means of uniparental and ancestry informative markers (AIMs).

Results

Analyses of uniparental genetic markers indicate that Maya have a dominant Native American ancestry (mitochondrial DNA [mtDNA]: 100%; Y-chromosome: 94%). ‘Ladino’, however, show a clear gender-bias as indicated by the large European ancestry observed in the Y-chromosome (75%) compared to the mtDNA (0%). Autosomal polymorphisms (AIMs) also mirror this marked gender-bias: (i) Native American ancestry: 92% for the Maya vs. 55% for the ‘Ladino’, and (ii) European ancestry: 8% for the Maya vs. 41% for the ‘Ladino’. In addition, the impact of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade on the present-day Guatemalan population is very low (and only occurs in the ‘Ladino’; mtDNA: 9%; AIMs: 4%), in part mirroring the fact that Guatemala has a predominant orientation to the Pacific Ocean instead of a Caribbean one. Sequencing of entire Guatemalan mitogenomes has led to improved Native American phylogeny via the addition of new haplogroups that are mainly observed in Mesoamerica and/or the North of South America.

Conclusions

The data reveal the existence of a fluid gene flow in the Mesoamerican area and a predominant unidirectional flow towards South America, most likely occurring during the Pre-Classic (1800 BC-200 AD) and the Classic (200–1000 AD) Eras of the Mesoamerican chronology, coinciding with development of the most distinctive and advanced Mesoamerican civilization, the Maya. Phylogenetic features of mtDNA data also suggest a demographic scenario that is compatible with moderate local endogamy and isolation in the Maya combined with episodes of gene exchange between ethnic groups, suggesting an ethno-genesis in the Guatemalan Maya that is recent and supported on a cultural rather than a biological basis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1339-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Forest change estimates for the northern Petén region of Guatemala — 1986–1990

Landsat-thematic mapper images recorded April 1986 and 1990 were obtained for northern Guatemala. The study area corresponds to a major portion of Guatemala's Maya Biosphere reserve but also includes land outside the western and southern boundary of the reserve. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was computed at each date and image differencing (subtraction) was performed. The resulting image was thresholded into three categories: regrowth, no change, and forest clearing. A 10×10 km grid system was superimposed on the image to categorize the percentage of each 100 km² cell that changed between 1986 and 1990. Forest clearing patterns were apparent along the border areas (Mexico and Guatemala) and all along the southern portion of the study area where human populations were moving toward the Maya Biosphere borders, along existing roads. Forest clearing was negligible or absent in the roadless areas.     

A new species of Sicyos (Cucurbitaceae, Sicyeae, Sicyinae) from Mexico and Guatemala

Sicyos lirae is described as a new species from Chiapas, Mexico, and Guatemala. It grows in zones with primary or secondary montane rain forest at elevations between 1400 and 3800 meters. In Guatemala the species is commonly called “güisquil de ratón.” It is similar toSicyos galeottii Cogn., from which it differs in blade consistency, shape of the stigma lobes, and several important ovary and fruit characters.     

Distillation in Western Mesoamerica before European Contact

Distillation in Western Mesoamerica before European Contact. Fermented beverages are almost universal among ancient human societies. Ethanol is an analgesic, disinfectant, and mind-altering substance, and can help to preserve and enhance the nutritional value of food. Fermentation has therefore played a key role in human cultural and technological development. In Mesoamerica, codices and colonial-era sources describe a variety of fermented beverages produced before European contact. Distilled beverages, in contrast, have not been invented in all cultures, and their production in pre-contact Mesoamerica remains controversial. We tested the hypothesis of Needham et al. (1980) that Capacha gourd and trifid vessels described by Kelly (1974) for the Early Formative (1500–1000 BCE) in Colima state, western Mexico, could have been used to produce distilled beverages. Experiments using vessel replicas, techniques, and materials (including agave ferment) available in this region during this period successfully produced ethanol-containing distillates. We propose the possible origin and development of a “Capacha-type Mesoamerican still” from bean pots or from steamer pots used during this period, and discuss the possible production of spirits as part of the prevailing agricultural and cultural system. Average gourd and trifid vessel sizes, their archaeological context, and the ethanol yields of the replicas suggest that, if used as stills, they were used to produce a prestige product for ceremonial purposes, with high social and cultural relevance.     

Sequence and RFLP analysis of the ITS2 ribosomal DNA in two Neotropical social bees, <Emphasis>Melipona beecheii</Emphasis> and <Emphasis>Melipona yucatanica</Emphasis> (Apidae,Meliponini)

Two stingless bees species of the genus Melipona, M. beecheii and M. yucatanica, are the only ones reported for the Yucatan Peninsula. The natural distribution of M. beecheii ranges from southern Mexico to Costa Rica, that of M. yucatanica from south Mexico to Guatemala. Colonies of both species occur in a variety of habitats and show adaptations to local conditions denoting the occurrence of ecotypes. The ITS2 of ribosomal DNA has been characterized in both species and its utility to discriminate among colonies has been investigated through RFLP experiments. The ITS2 region is unusually long, 1788 bp in M. beecheii and 1845 bp in M. yucatanica (including the 3′ end of the 5.8S gene and partial 5′ of the 28S gene). Mean nucleotide divergence between both ITS2 sequences is 16% (excluding sites with insertions/deletions) and 20% when the insertions/deletions are taken into account. The G+C content in both sequences is close to 53%. The PCR-RFLP assay was performed with 12 restriction enzymes on colonies of M. beecheii from Mexico (Yucatan, Campeche and Chiapas) Costa Rica, El Salvador and Guatemala, and of M. yucatanica from Mexico (Yucatan) and Guatemala. The restriction patterns obtained allow to discriminating colonies of both species with different origins. Both kinds of data are thus useful for assessing intra and interspecific genetic variability and for developing appropriate conservation strategies for these species. Received 20 June 2007; revised 31 August 2007; accepted 12 September 2007.     

Protracted drought during the late Holocene in the Lacandon rain forest,Mexico

A 3.4 m core was obtained for paleoecological analysis from Naja Lake in the Lacandon region of southeastern Mexico. This is the first study of the Lacandon area aimed at reconstructing late Holocene environmental history. The basal section of the core yielded an AMS date of 2020 ¹⁴C years b.p. The Naja pollen record shows that the lower montane rain forest characterized by Moraceae, Mimosoideae, Leguminosae and Combretaceae/Melastomataceae, coexisted with a pine-oak forest throughout the late Holocene. No Zea mays pollen was found during routine pollen counts, but the presence of both secondary pollen taxa and abundant charcoal particles suggest some degree of regional human impact. A marked increase in Pinus pollen, together with a reduction in lower montane rain forest taxa, is interpreted as evidence for a strong, protracted drought from 1260 to 730 ¹⁴C years b.p.     

Earth Ovens (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Píib</Emphasis>) in the Maya Lowlands: Ethnobotanical Data Supporting Early Use

Earth Ovens ( Píib ) in the Maya Lowlands: Ethnobotanical Data Supporting Early Use. Earth oven cooking is very important among the Yucatec Maya. It is used for daily, festive, and ceremonial occasions, contrasting with other Mesoamerican cultures that use this technique sporadically. In this paper we present an ethnobotanical analysis of the use of earth ovens in a Maya community in Yucatan, Mexico, and discuss its possible antiquity, probable reasons for its continuity, and its current and past importance. We found four oven types in daily use as well as in ritual and celebratory contexts. These involve both men and women in a way that favors transmission of traditional knowledge to the next generation and promotes social bonding and ethnic identity. Of the 46 plant species used in their construction or for the dishes cooked in them, 82% are native and produced in traditional agricultural systems: milpa (kool in Maya) maize-bean-squash association and conuco (pach pakal in Maya) based on tubers such as manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Research suggests that this food preparation technology has the same antiquity as its associated agricultural systems (approximately 3400 to 3000 B.C.E.). Earth ovens were probably used to cook roots and meat in the Archaic and then to cook tamales (vegetal-wrapped maize dough) beginning in the Preclassic. Continuity of traditional agricultural and cultural practices has favored preservation of earth ovens.     

Sporothrix globosa,a pathogenic fungus with widespread geographical distribution

Sporothrix globosa, reported from the USA, Europe, and Asia, is a recently described pathogenic species morphologically similar to Sporothrix schenckii. In this study, the phylogenetic affinities of 32 clinical and environmental isolates morphologically identified as S. schenckii, from Mexico, Guatemala, and Colombia, were assessed by cladistic analysis of partial sequences of the calmodulin gene using the maximum parsimony and neighbor-joining methods. The study revealed that one out of 25 isolates from Mexico (4%), one out of three isolates from Guatemala (33.3%), and two out of four isolates from Colombia (50%) belonged to S. globosa, while the other isolates belonged to S. schenckii sensu stricto. This is the first record of S. globosa from Mexico, and Central and South America.     

Systematic study ofOsbertia (Asteraceae-Astereae)

Osbertia, a stoloniferous group confined to the montane regions of Mexico and adjacent Guatemala, was first proposed as a genus byGreene (1895), but most workers have retained the taxon as part ofHaplopappus. It is clearly closer toNoticastrum, Erigeron orHeterotheca than it is toHaplopappus sensu stricto. The present treatment recognizes two species, a widespread highly variableOsbertia stolonifera and a newly describedO. chihuahuana from northwestern Mexico. Distribution maps, distinguishing features, full synonymy and illustrations are presented.     

Characterization of yeasts isolated from red wine surface film

We have isolated 6 morphologically different axenic yeast cultures from the film surface of red wine. Based on morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics we have identified the strains as follows: isolates1–4 are morphologically different strains of the anamorph basidiomycetous film-forming yeastCandida humicola (Daszewska) Diddens etLodder, syn.Apiotrichum humicola (Daszewska) von Arx Weijman. Isolates5 and6 belong to the genusSaccharomyces of the associated speciesS. cerevisiœ (isolate5 originallyS. bayanus, isolate6 S. capensis). These do not participate in the surface film formation.     

Taxonomic reassessment ofBolonia Meunier, 1886 (trace fossil) based on new material from the type area in Boulonnais, northern France

The ichnospeciesBolonia lata Meunier, 1886 is a straight, bilobate trace fossil with a somewhat heart-shaped outline in cross-section. It has previously been reported from various localities mainly from the Jurassic by different authors under various names such asGyrochorte, Scolicia, orProtovirgularia. Because none of these previous determinations fully agrees with the trace fossils’ morphology, the ‘forgotten name’ is reintroduced, and due to a lack of type material a neotype from the type area of Boulonnais, France is proposed. The ichnogenus is currently represented only by one ichnospecies,B. lata Meunier, 1886. Diagnostic criteria ofBolonia and morphologically related trace fossils such asScolicia, Gyrochorte, Bichordites, “Taphrhelminthopsis nelsoni”, andProtovirgularia are discussed, the synonymy ofB. lata is provided and finally a discussion on the possible producer ofBolonia is given.      

What Happens to Traditional Knowledge and Use of Natural Resources When People Migrate?

The study investigates traditional knowledge of forest plants in a community (La Quetzal) inhabited by people who returned to Guatemala at the end of the civil war, after 10–12 years in exile in Southern Mexico, and now are in the process of constructing a new community in the Lacandon jungle in the Petén, Guatemala. We ask if the basis of knowledge and the use of natural resources change when people migrate. The relevance of vascular plant diversity for consumption and other daily needs of the population is explored. Relatively few species are presently used, with the exception of timber species, where knowledge seems to be increasing. Traditional knowledge has been maintained in certain areas such as medicine. Nature as such is regarded as important primarily as potential monetary capital and not for its subsistence capital. We find that the refugee situation has led to the introduction of global consumption patterns. Still there continues to be a dynamic local intuitive knowledge arising directly from practical experiences. Two interlinked factors have been the driving forces altering the knowledge and the use of natural resources by the people in La Quetzal: Change in the natural environment and change in the social and economic environment.