The annual patterns of photosynthesis in two large, freshwater, ultra-oligotrophic Antarctic lakes

The phytoplankton productivity and biomass of two large, freshwater Antarctic lakes (Vestfold Hills, eastern Antarctica) were investigated over a 12-month period. Crooked Lake was sampled at one site, while Lake Druzhby, a complex lake with two shallow and one deep basin, was subject to a more detailed investigation. Concentrations of chlorophyll a were usually below 1 µg l^-1, indicating ultra-oligotrophic conditions. Despite periodic low nutrient levels, low temperatures (range 0.4-2.8°C) and periodic poor light climate, some degree of photosynthesis was measurable throughout the year, including the dark winter phase. Snow cover had a pronounced impact on the light climate of the water column and inhibited photosynthesis. Mean rates of carbon fixation in the 0- to 15-m water column varied between 0 and 38.47 µg C l^-1 day^-1 in Crooked Lake and 0.24 and 37.68 µg C l^-1 day^-1 in Lake Druzhby. There were significant differences in the seasonal patterns of primary production between the basins of Lake Druzhby. The shallow basins had highest productivity in August, whereas the deep basin had highest rates in summer. Chlorophyll specific rates of photosynthesis or assimilation numbers [µg C (chl. a)^-1 h^-1] varied between 0.05 and 44.9, and photosynthetic efficiency [µg C (chl. a)^-1 h^-1 µmol m^-2 s^-1] between 0.02 and 5.19. The data suggest that the phytoplankton of these lakes is adapted to low irradiance levels, low temperatures and nutrient limitation.     

Sediment diatom assemblages and composition of pore-water dissolved organic matter reflect recent eutrophication history of Lake Peipsi (Estonia/Russia)

A paleolimnological approach was used for the assessment of the recent eutrophication history and identification of possible reference conditions in the large, shallow, eutrophic Lake Peipsi. Lake Peipsi is the fourth largest lake by area, and the largest transboundary lake in Europe, being shared between Estonia and Russia. Lake Peipsi has been anthropogenically impacted over a longer time-scale than that covered by instrumental limnological monitoring. The ²¹⁰Pb record and down-core distribution of fly-ash particles in the 40-cm core from the middle part of the lake suggest 130 years of sediment accumulation. Diatom assemblages indicate alkaline mesotrophic conditions and a well-illuminated water column, sediment pore-water fluorescence index values suggest low autochthonous productivity and a stable aquatic ecosystem similar to natural reference conditions during the second half of 19th and early 20th century. Near-synchronous stratigraphic changes including the expansion of the eutrophic planktonic diatom Stephanodiscus parvus, the appearance of new species associated with eutrophic lakes and the decrease in the relative abundance of littoral diatoms, together with changes in the fluorescence properties of sediment pore-water dissolved organic matter, imply increased nutrient availability, enlarged phytoplankton crops, reduced water-column transparency and the onset of human-induced disturbances in the lake since the mid-20th century. The most conspicuous expansion of eutrophic planktonic diatoms and maximum concentration of siliceous microfossils occur simultaneously with changes in the fluorescence indexes of pore-water dissolved organic matter, indicating a pronounced increase in the contribution of autochthonous organic matter to the lake sediment. This implies that nutrient loading and anthropogenic impact was at a maximum during the 1970s and 1980s. Sedimentary diatom flora may reflect a reduction of phosphorus loading since the 1990s. However, the absolute abundance of planktonic diatoms and sediment pore-water fluorescence index values vary greatly implying that the lake ecosystem is still rather unstable.     

The influence of a dissolved inorganic nitrogen gradient on phytoplankton community dynamics in a chain of lakes

In a chain of lakes along which nutrient availability varies in a gradient, we performed factorial nutrient enrichment experiments to determine if nitrogen limitation was the principal factor controlling the differences in phytoplankton biomass, photosynthetic productivity, diversity, and species composition among two of the lakes in the chain. In the least productive lake, East Graham Lake, P and C enrichments (in the absence of N enrichment) had no effect on biomass and diversity, whereas within two weeks the N enrichments (alone or in any combination with P and/or C) increased the biomass and decreased the diversity of East Graham Lake phytoplankton to levels similar or identical to those in more productive Shoe Lake. Short-term ¹⁴C photosynthetic rates in East Graham Lake water also responded only to N in the third week. However, photosynthesis was stimulated by P in the first week, and a few species did increase in numbers with P enrichment, suggesting that some degree of P limitation remains in addition to the strong N limitation in East Graham Lake. A number of species responded individually to the enrichments in a manner similar to that of the overall community, and a strong overlapping of discriminant analysis scores for N-enriched East Graham Lake with those of Shoe Lake was consistent with our prediction that the community structure of N-enriched East Graham Lake water would shift toward that of Shoe Lake. However, many species did not respond consistently with these results, and the nutrients tested were clearly not a major factor in the differences in abundance of those species among the two lakes. The results support the argument that overall biomass production and diversity of the phytoplankton community in a lake can be a relatively simple function of a single most-limiting nutrient. However, many of the species responses also confirm that, while nutrient availability is an important factor in the control of the species composition of the community, other factors are likely to prevent reliable predictions of all species effects on the basis of nutrient availability alone.     

Effects of sediment resuspension on phytoplankton production: teasing apart the influences of light, nutrients and algal entrainment

1. Wind‐induced sediment resuspension can affect planktonic primary productivity by influencing light penetration and nutrient availability, and by contributing meroplankton (algae resuspended from the lake bed) to the water column. We established relationships between sediment resuspension, light and nutrient availability to phytoplankton in a shallow lake on four occasions. 2. The effects of additions of surficial sediments and nutrients on the productivity of phytoplankton communities were measured in 300 mL gas‐tight bottles attached to rotating plankton wheels and exposed to a light gradient, in 24 h incubations at in situ temperatures. 3. While sediment resuspension always increased primary productivity, resuspension released phytoplankton from nutrient limitation in only two of the four experiments because the amount of available nitrogen and phosphorus entrained from the sediments was small compared with typical baseline levels in the water column. In contrast, chlorophyll a entrainment was substantial compared with baseline water column concentrations and the contribution of meroplankton to primary production was important at times, especially when seasonal irradiance in the lake was high. 4. Comparison of the in situ light climate with the threshold of light‐limitation of the phytoplankton indicated that phytoplankton in the lake were only likely to be light‐limited at times of extreme turbidity (e.g. >200 nephelometric turbidity units), particularly when these occur in winter. Therefore, resuspension influenced phytoplankton production mainly via effects on available nutrients and by entraining algae. The importance of each of these varied in time. 5. The partitioning of primary productivity between the water column and sediments in shallow lakes greatly influences the outcome of resuspension events for water column primary productivity.     

Strong spatial differentiation of N and P deficiency,primary productivity and community composition between Nyanza Gulf and Lake Victoria (Kenya,East Africa) and the implications for nutrient management

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ECOLOGY OF THE EPIPELIC ALGAL COMMUNITIES IN MARION LAKE,BRITISH COLUMBIA1,2

Studies of the seasonal and spatial distribution of the epipelic algal standing crop and primary productivity were conducted in Marion Lake, British Columbia. Possible biological, chemical, and physical factors controlling the epipelic algal community dynamics were also investigated. The epipelic algal flora of the lake was very diverse, however, it can be generally considered as acidophilic associations of algae. The vertical distribution of the epipelic algae is partially influenced by the amount of light reaching the sediment, but also strongly influenced by the grazing of animals and erosion by wave action. Temperature, light, and grazing by animals all appear to influence the seasonal fluctuations in the algal standing crop. Concentrations of nutrients immediately above the sediment surface appear to be less important as controlling factors. The most important variables influenceing the primary productivity of the epipelic community are temperature, total algal standing crop, and light. Nutrients, again, appear to be less important as controlling factors. The study supports the idea that epipelic algal growth is high in shallow, low nutrient lakes and that the epipelic algal productivity is extremely important to the total energy budget of the lake.     

The spatio-temporal variations of sedimentary phosphorus in Taihu Lake and the implications for internal loading change and recent eutrophication

Internal phosphorus loading is particularly concerned for the shallow lakes due to the frequent sediment disturbance, which may play a vital role in changing nutrient level in overlying water. A historical perspective on internal phosphorus loading may contribute to understanding its contribution to recent eutrophication. In this work, a study on the changes in internal phosphorus loading and release potential in Taihu Lake, a shallow eutrophic lake in China, was performed based on the analysis of spatio-temporal variations of sedimentary total phosphorus and three operationally defined fractions (NaOH-P, HCl-P and OP). The influencing factors for changing internal loading were discussed. The results showed that internal phosphorus loading was elevated compared to pre-eutrophication periods and the increase has occurred since approximately the late 1970s to early 1980s. Changes in internal phosphorus loading were primarily attributed to the NaOH-P and OP fractions, relating to anthropogenic inputs and enhanced productivity, respectively. The internal phosphorus release potential may be enhanced by up to 22% currently relative to the pre-eutrophication period; however, it should play a secondary role to external input in enhancing nutrient levels and sustaining the eutrophication in Taihu Lake.     

Nitrogen dynamics and microbial food web structure during a summer cyanobacterial bloom in a subtropical,shallow, well-mixed,eutrophic lake (Lake Taihu,China)

Nitrogen dynamics and microbial food web structure were characterized in subtropical, eutrophic, large (2,338 km²), shallow (1.9 m mean depth), and polymictic Lake Taihu (China) in Sept–Oct 2002 during a cyanobacterial bloom. Population growth and industrialization are factors in trophic status deterioration in Lake Taihu. Sites for investigation were selected along a transect from the Liangxihe River discharge into Meiliang Bay to the main lake. Water column nitrogen and microbial food web measurements were combined with sediment–water interface incubations to characterize and identify important processes related to system nitrogen dynamics. Results indicate a gradient from strong phosphorus limitation at the river discharge to nitrogen limitation or co-limitation in the main lake. Denitrification in Meiliang Bay may drive main lake nitrogen limitation by removing excess nitrogen before physical transport to the main lake. Five times higher nutrient mineralization rates in the water column versus sediments indicate that sediment nutrient transformations were not as important as water column processes for fueling primary production. However, sediments provide a site for denitrification, which, along with nitrogen fixation and other processes, can determine available nutrient ratios. Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) was important, relative to denitrification, only at the river discharge site, and nitrogen fixation was observed only in the main lake. Reflecting nitrogen cycling patterns, microbial food web structure shifted from autotrophic (phytoplankton dominated) at the river discharge to heterotrophic (bacteria dominated) in and near the main lake.     

Influence of Temperature, Oxygen, and pH on a Metalimnetic Population of Oscillatoria rubescens

Planktonic Oscillatoria spp. often inhabit depths of thermally stratified lakes in which gradients of physical and chemical factors occur. Measurements of photosynthetic rate or photosynthetic carbon metabolism were used to evaluate the importance of vertical gradients of temperature, oxygen, and pH upon Oscillatoria rubescens in Crooked Lake, Ind. At the low light intensities experienced in situ, neither photosynthetic rate nor relative incorporation of carbon dioxide into low-molecular-weight compounds, polysaccharide, or protein was affected by temperature. At a 10-fold-higher light intensity, the photosynthetic rate increased as temperature increased; most of the additional carbon accumulated as polysaccharide. Polysaccharide which was synthesized at high light intensity and temperature was respired when the organisms were placed in the dark, but was not used for protein biosynthesis. When O. rubescens was shifted from high light to low light, a fraction of the polysaccharide was metabolized into protein. Adaptation to growth at lower temperatures by O. rubescens cultures resulted in a decrease in the maximum photosynthetic rate. Oxygen inhibited photosynthesis by only 10 to 15% at concentrations typically found in the lake. The photosynthetic rates at pH values which occurred in Crooked Lake were all near the maximum. Thus, gradients of temperature, oxygen, or pH are not likely to significantly affect the distribution of O. rubescens in Crooked Lake, given the low light intensity at which O. rubescens grows and the range of values for those factors in the lake.     

Effects of irradiance, temperature, and nutrients on growth dynamics of seagrasses: A review

Productivity of seagrasses can be controlled by physiological processes, as well as various biotic and abiotic factors that influence plant metabolism. Light, temperature, and inorganic nutrients affect biochemical processes of organisms, and are considered as major factors controlling seagrass growth. Minimum light requirements for seagrass growth vary among species due to unique physiological and morphological adaptations of each species, and within species due to photo-acclimation to local light regimes. Seagrasses can enhance light harvesting efficiencies through photo-acclimation during low light conditions, and thus plants growing near their depth limit may have higher photosynthetic efficiencies. Annual temperatures, which are highly predictable in aquatic systems, play an important role in controlling site specific seasonal seagrass growth. Furthermore, both thermal adaptation and thermal tolerance contribute greatly to seagrass global distributions. The optimal growth temperature for temperate species range between 11.5 °C and 26 °C, whereas the optimal growth temperature for tropical/subtropical species is between 23 °C and 32 °C. However, productivity in persistent seagrasses is likely controlled by nutrient availability, including both water column and sediment nutrients. It has been demonstrated that seagrasses can assimilate nutrients through both leaf and root tissues, often with equal uptake contributions from water column and sediment nutrients. Seagrasses use HCO₃⁻ inefficiently as a carbon source, thus photosynthesis is not always saturated with respect to DIC at natural seawater concentrations leading to carbon limitation for seagrass growth. Our understanding of growth dynamics in seagrasses, as it relates to main environmental factors such as light, temperature, and nutrient availability, is critical for effective conservation and management of seagrass habitats.     

太湖梅梁湾沿岸带水体生物学与光学特性

基于 1998～ 1999年周年 4季原位水下光场观测资料及中国科学院太湖湖泊生态系统研究站 1992～ 2 0 0 1年悬浮物、叶绿素 a、透明度长期历史观测资料分析了太湖梅梁湾沿岸带第 2号站点水体的生物学与光学特性 ,探讨了水下光合有效辐射(PAR)总量的日变化、垂直分布 ;光衰减系数的季节变化及光谱分布 ;影响光衰减系数的主要水色因子。结果表明 ,无论是 PAR还是光谱衰减系数其值都很高 ,其中 PAR衰减系数在 1.4 0～ 5 .30 / m间变化 ,均值为 2 .4 3± 0 .5 5 / m,秋季最大、夏季最小 ,真光层深度在 0 .87～ 3.2 9m间变化 ,均值为 1.98± 0 .4 1m;水下光谱在蓝光波段衰减最强烈 ,其次是红光、绿光 ,随着深度增加光谱成分出现绿移和红移现象 ,绿红光占得比例越来越大 ;光谱衰减系数随着波长的增加大致呈下降趋势 ,但在 6 70 nm附近有个峰值 ;基于线性相关分析发现在混浊的沿岸带水体中影响光衰减主要因子为水体中的悬浮物和有色可溶性有机物 ,叶绿素 a对 PAR衰减系数的贡献率只占到 1.5 9%～ 14 .2 1%。     

Relative importance of periphyton and phytoplankton in turbid and clear vegetated shallow lakes from the Pampa Plain (Argentina): a comparative experimental study

We analyzed experimentally the relative contribution of phytoplankton and periphyton in two shallow lakes from the Pampa Plain (Argentina) that represent opposite scenarios according to the alternative states hypothesis for shallow lakes: a clear lake with submerged macrophytes, and a turbid lake with high phytoplankton biomass. To study the temporal changes of both microalgal communities under such contrasting conditions, we placed enclosures in the littoral zone of each lake, including natural phytoplankton and artificial substrata, half previously colonized by periphyton until a mature stage and half clean to analyze periphyton colonization. In the clear vegetated shallow lake, periphyton chlorophyll a concentrations were 3–6 times higher than those of the phytoplankton community. In contrast, phytoplankton chlorophyll a concentrations were 76–1,325 times higher than those of periphyton in the turbid lake. Here, under light limitation conditions, the colonization of the periphyton was significantly lower than in the clear lake. Our results indicate that in turbid shallow lakes, the light limitation caused by phytoplankton determines a low periphyton biomass dominated by heterotrophic components. In clear vegetated shallow lakes, where nitrogen limitation probably occurs, periphyton may develop higher biomass, most likely due to their higher efficiency in nutrient recycling.     

底泥再悬浮对东湖水体初级生产力的影响

为研究底泥再悬浮对东湖初级生产力的影响, 通过模拟东湖通道施工导致的底泥再悬浮过程, 用原位黑白瓶法测量了水体初级生产力, 同步测定受试水体的光强、营养盐以及藻类叶绿素荧光活性, 结果表明, 随着再悬浮底泥含量的增加, 水体出现明显的光衰减现象, 光强显著降低(P0.05); 总氮总磷浓度升高; 藻类最大光化学效率(Fv/Fm)上升; 水体呼吸作用显著增强(P0.05), 总初级生产力与净初级生产力先增大后减小。与不含再悬浮底泥的对照组相比, 水体再悬浮底泥含量50100 g/L处理组具有较高的初级生产力; 相对其他处理组, 再悬浮底泥含量200 g/L处理组的初级生产力显著降低(P0.05), 且其净初级生产力为负值。研究结果表明, 在一定范围内的底泥再悬浮通过增加水体营养盐含量的方式提高水体初级生产力, 较大含量的再悬浮底泥则通过影响水体光强降低初级生产力, 该结果确认了东湖通道施工引起的底泥再悬浮对水域生态系统的影响, 值得引起关注和重视。     

Modelling nutrient cycles in relation to food web structure in a biomanipulated shallow lake

The modelPCLAKE describes the phosphorus and nitrogen cycles within a shallow lake ecosystem, including the sediment and a simplified biological food web. All components are modelled in a generalized way rather than a very detailed one. This model has been applied to Lake Zwemlust, a small biomanipulated lake in The Netherlands. Formerly, this highly eutrophic lake was dominated by cyanobacteria and devoid of macrophytes. Biomanipulation was carried out in 1987 by pumping-out of the water, removal of all fish, and refilling of the lake with seepage water. The lake was restocked with some rudd, pike, zooplankton and seedlings of macrophytes, and then monitored up to 1992. Macrophytes developed rather quickly and reached their maximum biomass during the six-years period in 1989. Despite the continuously high nutrient (N and P) loading, algal biomass remained low due to nitrogen limitation, caused by competition with the macrophytes. From 1990 onwards, the macrophytes declined again and a species shift occurred, following an increase of herbivorous birds on the lake and the development of herbivorous fishes.Model simulations grossly reproduced the observed developments in Lake Zwemlust before and after the biomanipulation measures. The existence of multiple steady states at the same trophic state and the possible shift between them could be simulated well. This study also demonstrates the interrelation between system structure and the distribution and cycling of nutrients. It is concluded, that within general boundary conditions set by the trophic state of the system, the food web structure determines the actual nutrient flows and the occurrence of nutrient limitations of the primary producers. It is shown that both aspects can be integrated in one mathematical model. The long-term stability of the macrophyte dominance in the lake is discussed.     

Disentangling the role of light and nutrient limitation on bacterivory by mixotrophic nanoflagellates

Many phytoplankton taxa function on multiple trophic levels by combining photosynthesis and ingestion of bacteria, termed mixotrophy. Despite the recognition of mixotrophy as a universal functional trait, we have yet to fully resolve how environmental conditions influence community grazing rates in situ. A microcosm study was used to assess bacterivory by mixotrophic nanoflagellates following nutrient enrichment and light attenuation in a temperate lake. We found contrasting results based on assessment of mixotroph abundance or bacterivory. Despite an interactive effect of nutrient enrichment and light attenuation on mixotroph abundance, significant differences within light treatments were observed only after enrichment with P or N + P. The greatest abundance of mixotrophs across treatments occurred under co-nutrient enrichment with full exposure to irradiance. However, bacterivory by mixotrophic nanoflagellates was greatest under shaded conditions after either N or P enrichment. We suggest that PAR availability dampened the stimulatory effect of nutrient limitation, and bacterivory supplemented a suboptimal photosynthetic environment. In a saturating light regime, the mixotrophic community was less driven to ingest bacteria because photosynthesis was able to satisfy energetic demands. These findings quantify community bacterivory in response to environmental drivers that may characterize future ecosystem conditions and highlight the importance of considering grazing rates in conjunction with abundance of mixotrophic protists.     

Some aspects of photosynthetic characteristics in a set of perennial irrigation reservoirs located in five river basins in Sri Lanka

Phytoplankton primary productivity of eleven irrigation reservoirs located in five river basins in Sri Lanka was determined on a single occasion together with light climate and nutrient concentrations. Although area-based gross primary productivity (1.43–11.65 g O₂ m^–2 d^–1) falls within the range already established for tropical water bodies, net daily rate was negative in three water bodies. Light-saturated optimum rates were found in water bodies, with relatively high algal biomass, but photosynthetic efficiency or specific rates were higher in water bodies with low algal biomass, indicating nutrient limitation or physiological adaptation of phytoplankton. Concentrations of micronutrients and algal biomass in the reservoirs are largely altered by high flushing rate resulting from irrigation release. Underwater light climate and nutrient availability control the rate of photosynthesis and subsequent area-based primary production to a great extent. However, morpho-edephic index or euphotic algal biomass in the most productive stratum of the water column is not a good predictor of photosynthetic capacity or daily rate of primary production of these shallow tropical irrigation reservoirs.     

Response of a shallow Mediterranean lake to nutrient diversion: does it follow similar patterns as in northern shallow lakes?

1. In view of the paucity of data on the response of warm shallow lakes to reductions in nutrient loading, this paper presents a long‐term limnological data set to document changes in the food‐web of a shallow Mediterranean lake (Lake Albufera, Valencia, Spain) that has experienced reductions in phosphorus (P) (77%) and nitrogen (N) (24%) loading following sewage diversion. 2. Nine years after sewage diversion, P concentration in the lake was reduced by 30% but remained high (TP = 0.34 mg L^?1), although the mean water retention time in the lake was only 0.1 years. Nitrate concentrations did not significantly change, probably because the lake continued to receive untreated effluents from ricefields. 3. Chlorophyll a concentration was reduced by half (annual mean of 180 μg L^?1). Cyanobacteria abundance remained high but its composition changed towards smaller species, both filamentous and chroococcal forms. 4. Cladocera abundance increased and reached peaks twice a year (December to March and July to September). After nutrient reduction, short‐term clear‐water phases (up to 5 weeks) occurred during February to March in several years, concomitant with annual flushing of the lake and lower fish densities. The abundance of Cladocera in winter contrasted with the spring peaks observed in northern restored shallow lakes. The zooplankton to phytoplankton biomass ratio remained lower than in northern temperate shallow lakes, probably because of fish predation on zooplankton. 5. Improvement of the water quality of Lake Albufera remained insufficient to counteract littoral reed regression or improve underwater light allowing submerged plants re‐colonise the lake. 6. Sewage diversion from Lake Albufera impacted the food web through the plankton, but higher trophic levels, such as fish and waterfowl, were affected to a lesser degree. Although the fish species present in the lake are mainly omnivorous, long‐term data on commercial fish captures indicated that fish communities changed in response to nutrient level and trophic structure as has been observed in restored shallow lakes at northern latitudes. 7. Phosphorus concentrations produced similar phytoplankton biomass in Lake Albufera as in more northern shallow lakes with abundant planktivorous fish and small zooplankton. However, in Lake Albufera, high average concentrations were maintained throughout the year. Overall, results suggest that nutrient control may be a greater priority in eutrophicated warm shallow lakes than in similar lakes at higher latitudes.     

Comparative analysis of nutrients,chlorophyll and transparency in two large shallow lakes (Lake Taihu,P.R. China and Lake Okeechobee,USA)

This article compares limnological attributes of two of the world’s largest shallow lakes—Lake Okeechobee in Florida, USA and Lake Taihu in P.R. China. Both the systems support an array of ecological and societal values including fish and wildlife habitat, public water supply, flood protection, and recreation. Both have extensive research programs, largely because of concern regarding the lakes’ frequent cyanobacterial blooms. By evaluating these systems together, we compare and contrast properties that can generally advance the understanding and management of large shallow lowland lakes. Because of shallow depth, long fetch, and unconsolidated mud sediments, water chemistry, and transparency in both the lakes are strongly influenced by resuspended sediments that affect light and nutrient conditions. In the central region of both the lakes, where depth is the greatest, evaluation of limiting factors by a trophic state index approach indicates that light most often limits phytoplankton biomass. In contrast, the more sheltered shoreline areas of both the lakes display evidence of nitrogen (N) limitation, which also has been confirmed in nutrient assays conducted in earlier studies. This N limitation most likely is a result of excessive levels of phosphorus (P) that have developed in the lakes due to high external loads over recent decades and the currently high internal P recycling. Comparisons of these lakes show that Lake Taihu has higher N than, similar total phosphorus (TP) and similar light conditions to that of Lake Okeechobee, but less chlorophyll a (CHL). The latter may be as a result of lower winter temperatures in Lake Taihu (around 5°C) compared to Lake Okeechobee (around 15°C), which could reduce phytoplankton growth and abundance through the other seasons of the year. In these systems, the important role of light, temperature, and nutrients in algal bloom dynamics must be considered, especially due to possible adverse and unintended effects that might occur with projects such as sediment removal, and in the long term, in regard to buffering lake responses to external load reduction. Handling editor: D. Hamilton     

Persistent internal phosphorus loading during summer in shallow eutrophic lakes

Nutrient availability, in particular of phosphorus (P), is a key factor for the structure and functioning of shallow lakes, and not least the sediment plays an important role by acting as both a nutrient source and sink. We used 21 years of monthly mass balance and lake water data from six shallow (mean depth = 1.2–2.7 m) and fast flushed (mean hydraulic retention time = 0.6–2.6 months) eutrophic Danish lakes (mean summer P concentrations ranging from 0.09 to 0.61 mg/l) to investigate long-term trends in yearly and seasonal patterns of P retention. To one of the lakes, the external P input was reduced by 70% in the early 1990s, whereas none of the other lakes have experienced major changes in external P loading for more than 20 years. All lakes showed a distinct seasonal pattern with high P concentrations and typically negative P retention during summer (up to ?300% of the external loading from May to August). During winter, P retention was overall positive (up to 50% of the external loading from December to April). Internal P loading from the sediment delayed lake recovery by approximately 10 years in the lake with the most recently reduced external loading, but in all the lakes net release of P from the sediment occurred during summer. P release in the six lakes has not abated during the past decade, indicating that the sediment of eutrophic and turbid shallow lakes remains a net source of P during summer. The seasonal variations in P retention became more pronounced with increasing P levels, and retention decreased with increasing temperature, but increased if clear water conditions were established.     

The importance of drawdown and sediment removal for the restoration of the eutrophied shallow Lake Kraenepoel (Belgium)

Lake Kraenepoel (Belgium) is a shallow lake (22 ha), divided in two basins since 1957 by a shallow dike. The lake was used for fish farming until World War II and was drawn down about every 5 years to harvest fish. Despite its dense historical carp population, it had clear water and a rich Littorelletea vegetation. During the course of the 20th century, the lake became eutrophic and the Littorelletea vegetation degraded. The northern basin, which was still drawn down about every decade after 1957, retained its clear water and had a dense submerged macrophyte vegetation. The southern basin, which was never drawn down after 1957 and which received direct surface water inputs, had become a turbid shallow lake with phytoplankton blooms in summer. In 2000, efforts were taken to restore the lake: the entire lake was drawn down, the fish community was biomanipulated, nutrient-rich surface water inputs were diverted from the southern basin and sediments were removed (only in the northern basin). Fish biomanipulation and sediment removal were successful in the northern basin, as nutrient levels declined and the Littorelletea vegetation recovered. In the southern basin, sediment analyses indicated that drawdown resulted in sediments with a lower water and organic matter content and water column turbidity decreased after the drawdown. But pH in the southern basin declined to <4, probably because sulphides in the sediment were oxidized during drawdown and sediment desiccation. In contrast, desiccated sediments were removed from the northern basin and pH did not decline below 6 after restoration. In spite of the still high dissolved nutrient concentrations, phytoplankton biomass declined significantly in the southern basin, probably due to acidification. However, no Littorelletea species colonised the lake bottom in the southern basin. Thus, lake drawdown may be a useful management technique to promote clear water conditions in shallow lakes. However, acidification due to sulphide oxidation may be an undesirable outcome and should be considered in drawdown and sediment desiccation manipulations.