Animal Activity and Visitor Learning at the Zoo

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effect animal activity had on information visitors attended to at three bear exhibits. Attention was used as an indirect measure of what information visitors are consciously processing, or learning. It was hypothesized that visitors would be more likely to attend to specific information about animal behavior when bears were active rather than when inactive or out of sight. Visitor conversations were recorded during observations of polar, sloth and spectacled bears. Conversation was coded according to its content (animal-directed, human-focused, behavior, other) and to the corresponding behavior of the bear (active, inactive, pacing, not visible). The energy level of the activity was also considered. The hypothesis was supported for the polar bears, but less so for the other two bears. Behavior conversation was highest and human-directed conversation was lowest in the presence of highly animated polar bears. Behavior content was limited in the presence of the less animated sloth and spectacled bears. However, it was still significantly less frequent, and human content more frequent, when the sloth and spectacled bears were pacing and/or not visible. Therefore, what visitors attended to was influenced by what the bears were doing. The findings suggest that animated activity (rather than the more broadly defined ‘activity’) elicits the most visitor attention to behavior, and this in turn potentially facilitates visitor learning.     

Visitor Perceptions of Nature Conservation at Helsinki Zoo

These days zoos often claim that their main objective is the promotion of nature conservation and that they strive to educate their visitors about animals and nature conservation. But how do zoo visitors themselves perceive this emphasis on conservation education? In order to determine how Helsinki Zoo visitors perceive nature conservation during their visit, we undertook a qualitative analysis of 75 structured situational interviews and five autoethnographical visits. Our results show that there was only a limited understanding of nature conservation among the zoo visitors. Their perception follows the typical framing of nature conservation in zoos: conservation projects that embrace captive breeding, in-situ conservation collaboration, and the reintroduction of those species. Moreover, in the Helsinki Zoo case these perceptions may have been influenced by the fact that the zoo did not give concrete advice on how the visitors themselves can contribute to conservation, except in terms of donating money. Framing nature conservation in such ways distances it from visitors’ everyday lives.     

Food for Thought: Assessing Visitor Comfort and Attitudes toward Carcass Feeding at the ABQ BioPark Zoo

Enrichment is a key to keeping animals in zoos healthy and stimulated. For carnivores, the practice of feeding vertebrate animal carcasses, like those of goats or deer, or whole body prey animals like chickens or rabbits, can be an effective form of enrichment. While it is beneficial for animal care, carcass feeding may also be off-putting to some visitors. This research aimed to address this concern by describing the attitudes and comfort levels of visitors who viewed carcass feeding in three exhibits at the ABQ BioPark Zoo in Albuquerque, New Mexico: spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), and African painted dog (Lycaon pictus). Results showed that visitors stayed at exhibits longer when a carcass was introduced and reported feeling generally comfortable and at ease while viewing carcass feeding. Findings also showed that visitors felt carcass feeding was beneficial to animal care and welfare.     

Retreat Space and Human Visitor Density Moderate Undesirable Behavior in Petting Zoo Animals

This study focused on the relationship between nonhuman animal behavior and environment-specifically, between the undesirable behavior exhibited by domestic petting zoo animals in the presence of humans and the spatial design of the petting zoo environment. A spatial feature of a petting zoo referred to as a retreat space was manipulated so that it affected the animals' opportunity for individual control over interaction with humans. Three conditions were tested: no retreat space, semi-retreat space, and a full-retreat space. The subjects of this study were 5 African pygmy goats (Capra hircus) and 2 Romanov sheep (Ovis aries). Investigators used a focal sampling technique to analyze approximately 27 hr of behavioral data collected. The data were analyzed using multiple linear regression methods. The findings suggest that the full-retreat design beneficially moderated both sheep and goat behavior: Undesirable behaviors were lowest in the full-retreat condition. This study provides information that may improve human-animal interactions in a petting zoo setting and may increase animal well-being through exhibit design and management techniques.     

An Hourly Variation in Zoo Visitor Interest: Measurement and Significance for Animal Welfare Research

A methodological difficulty facing welfare research on nonhuman animals in the zoo is the large number of uncontrolled variables due to variation within and between study sites. Zoo visitors act as uncontrolled variables, with number, density, size, and behavior constantly changing. This is worrisome because previous research linked visitor variables to animal behavioral changes indicative of stress. There are implications for research design: Studies not accounting for visitors' effect on animal welfare risk confounding (visitor) variables distorting their findings. Zoos need methods to measure and minimize effects of visitor behavior and to ensure that there are no hidden variables in research models. This article identifies a previously unreported variable—hourly variation (decrease) in visitor interest—that may impinge on animal welfare and validates a methodology for measuring it. That visitor interest wanes across the course of the day has important implications for animal welfare management; visitor effects on animal welfare are likely to occur, or intensify, during the morning or in earlier visits when visitor interest is greatest. This article discusses this issue and possible solutions to reduce visitor effects on animal well-being.     

Giraffe restraint,habituation, and desensitization at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo

The giraffe restraint device manufactured at the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo has the capability to fully support the weight of an immobilized adult giraffe in an upright posture and allow physical restraint of giraffe. The unit has been used for either chemical or physical restraint 74 times, in 22 months, on seven different adult giraffe, without animal or personnel injuries. Habituation and desensitization of the giraffe are critical prerequisites for the successful use of the giraffe restraint device. Yohimbine effectively reversed the effects of xylazine sedation of giraffe. A drug combination of detomidine and azaperone offers promise as an alternative to either physical restraint or immobilization of giraffe for selected clinical and investigative procedures. Using the restraint device it has been possible to perform tuberculin testing, venipuncture, vaginal examination, rectal palpation, rectal ultrasound, cervical catheterization, hoof-trimming, and placement of a hoof block on awake, habituated, and desensitized giraffe.     

Freeze-mark techniques applied to mammals at the Santa Barbara Zoo

Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl₂F₂) was evaluated as a means of freeze-marketing ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), brown lemurs (L. fulvus), and Parma wallabys (Wallabia parma). Application times of 3–6 sec on unshaven lemurs resulted in successful markings, but the wallabys failed to respond with growth of white hair to application times of 3–10 sec. The freeze-marking process caused little physical discomfort when applied to fleshy regions, and the marks appear to be permanent.     

Technology at the Zoo: The Influence of a Touchscreen Computer on Orangutans and Zoo Visitors

A computer‐controlled touchscreen apparatus (hereafter referred to as “touchscreen”) in the orangutan exhibit at Zoo Atlanta provides enrichment to the animals and allows cognitive research to take place on exhibit. This study investigated the impact of the touchscreen on orangutan behavior and visibility, as well as its impact on zoo visitors. Despite previous research suggesting that providing a single computer system may negatively affect orangutan behavior, there was not a significant increase in aggression, stereotypic, or distress‐related behaviors following the activation of the on‐exhibit touchscreen. We also investigated the possibility that zoo visitors may be negatively affected by technology because it deviates from naturalism. However, we did not find a change in stay time or overall experience rating when the computer was turned on. This research was the first to assess visitor attitudes toward technology at the zoo, and we found that visitors report highly positive attitudes about technology for both animals and visitors. If subjects visited the exhibit when the computer was turned on, they more strongly agreed that orangutans benefit from interacting with computerized enrichment. This study is the first investigation of an on‐exhibit touchscreen in group‐housed apes; our findings of no negative effects on the animals or zoo visitors and positive attitudes toward technology suggest a significant value of this practice. Zoo Biol 31:27;–39, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

豚鹿的饲养管理与繁殖

本文报道成都动物园豚鹿的饲养管理、疾病预防和繁殖。适宜的饲养环境、宽敞的兽舍、高纤维含量和多样化的食物是豚鹿正常生长发育、繁殖的重要因素。     

Infant mortality in mother-reared captive chimpanzees at Taronga Zoo,Sydney

Infant mortality in mother-reared chimpanzees was examined from the records of Taronga Zoo, Sydney, Australia. Sex-specific mortality probabilities were calculated using standard demographic techniques. Male mortality was found to be considerably higher than female mortality. Using the same techniques, changes in infant mortality over time were calculated, with particular reference to changes that had occurred since the chimpanzees were transferred to a new open air enclosure in 1980. Mortality was found to have decreased dramatically since the move to the new enclosure, but the observed decline was exaggerated by the very high proportion of female infants. The main causes of infant death as ascertained from the zoo records were pneumonia and trauma. In addition, undetermined causes in the first day of life were numerous. An examination of the contexts of infanticide in wild and captive chimpanzees revealed slight differences, but factors such as aggression towards unfamiliar individuals and redirected aggression were common to both. Cannibalism in the zoo has so far been limited to the bodies of stillborn infants.     

Management and husbandry of ruffed lemurs,Varecia variegata,at the San Diego Zoo. I. Captive population,San Diego Zoo housing and diet

The captive history of the ruffed lemur is presented with concentration on taxonomy, captive population and husbandry of the San Diego Zoo population. At the conclusion of 1985, the living population of black and white ruffed lemurs numbered 358; red ruffed lemurs totaled 125. The San Diego Zoo population, established between 1965 and 1970, began with two pairs of each subspecies. Intensive breeding at the Primate Propagation Center resulted in the birth of 135 black and white ruffed lemur infants and 95 red ruffed lemur infants as of January 7, 1986. Housing specifications are presented for the off-exhibit 96-unit breeding facility, describing enclosure size, material, nest box composition, and enclosure furniture. The diet is described, which emphasizes high-protein, high-fiber foods and leaves.     

Reproductive parameters of mandrills at the Tulsa Zoo

The genital swelling patterns and birth records of female mandrills housed at the Tulsa Zoo between 1979 and 1992 were examined to determine various reproductive parameters. Mean age at first adolescent genital swelling was 2.7 years (sd = .55), first adult swelling was 3.7 years (sd = .64), and first conception was 5.1 years (sd = 1.30). Genital swelling cycle duration averaged 39.6 days (n = 33 cycles), with the swelling phase averaging 19.5 days (n = 51 cycles). There was no interindividual difference in cycle length (F = 1.26, P = .31) or swelling duration (F = 0.65, P = .58), nor was there a difference in cycle length (F = 0.47, P = .50) or swelling duration (F = 1.27, P = .27) before and after first parturition. Duration of gestation was estimated to be 165.9 days (sd = 3.3; n = 17 pregnancies). Lactational anestrus averaged 10.1 months, whereas mean interbirth interval was 17.9 months (n = 11). There was a significant negative correlation between age of the mother and interbirth interval (r = ?;0.648, P = .03). Data presented in this report provide a comprehensive profile of reproductive parameters for zoo-housed mandrills, which may aid other facilities in the reproductive management of their captive groups. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

新疆卡拉麦里山有蹄类自然保护区鹅喉羚遗传多样性及系统发育地位

鹅喉羚是生活于亚欧大陆荒漠、半荒漠地区重要的有蹄类动物。2010年春季,新疆卡拉麦里山有蹄类自然保护区遭遇了60年不遇的雪灾,我们采集了野外救灾发现的130头死亡鹅喉羚肌肉样本,采用PCR和测序技术,研究了鹅喉羚线粒体 DNA 的 Cyt b 基因 1143 bp 核酸序列,发现新疆卡拉麦里山有蹄类自然保护区生存的鹅喉羚单倍型多样性较高(Hd=0.855),核苷酸多样性较低(π=0.00224)。采用邻接法(NJ)、最大似然法(ML)构建单倍型之间的系统发育树,以及network所构建的单倍型间中介网络图都显示出2个遗传分化程度很大的分支,且这2个分支都出现过明显的群体扩张和持续增长。将本研究获得的单倍型H1与Genebank检索获得的瞪羚属其他12个物种Cyt b基因进行了比较,分别采用邻接法(NJ)和最大似然法(ML)构建分子系统树,证明与鹅喉羚最接近的物种为印度瞪羚(Gazella bennettii),鹅喉羚与瞪羚属内物种的分歧时间大约为1.08-2.5百万年(Mya)(Million years ago, Mya)。     

Of Ducklings and Turing Machines: Interactive Playbacks Enhance Subsequent Responsiveness to Conspecific Calls

Distress calls of mallard ducklings consist of a highly stereotyped series of notes. When two ducklings are simultaneously separated from the brood, they characteristically call in alternation. Each bird inhibits its calls while the other is vocalizing, thus preventing masking and facilitating localization by the hen. I examined whether exposure of ducklings to calls presented in a naturalistic alternating pattern affected subsequent responsiveness to them. Individual ducklings were exposed to either 40 s or 80 s of computer-controlled distress call playbacks, using an algorithm that mimicked the behavior of another duckling. Calls were presented only when the subject was silent and ended as soon as it began to vocalize. Each of these ducklings was paired with a ‘yoked’ control. Birds in these control groups experienced exactly the same pattern of playbacks as the ‘interactive’ birds, but the stimuli had no consistent relationship to their own vocal behavior. When the same calls were played back 24 h later, in a fixed pattern that was independent of the ducklings' behavior, birds that had received 80 s of prior interactive exposure were significantly more responsive than both their yoked controls and birds receiving only 40 s of such playbacks. This result suggests that interactive vocal experience, characteristic of natural communication, affects the subsequent perceptual sensitivity of ducklings.     

Influence of Zoo Visitor Presence on the Behavior of Captive Indian Gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus) in a Zoological Park

Visitors to zoos can be a source of potential disturbance and stress to some captive, nonhuman animals in the wild. To determine the influence of visitor presence on captive bison (Bos gaurus gaurus), the study analyzed the behavior of 4 individuals at the Arignar Anna Zoological Park, India. The study often observed the behavior of the animals on visitor-present days and on days when visitors were absent. In the presence of zoo visitors, the bison showed a higher level of intragroup aggression and moving behavior. In contrast, the bison rested more when no visitors were present. The results revealed that the presence of zoo visitors significantly influenced the behavior of captive bison and thereby may have affected their welfare.     

Kinematics of swimming of penguins at the Detroit Zoo

Kinematic parameters were examined in a study of the swimming abilities of seven species of penguins housed at the Detroit Zoo. Penguins produce thrust over both halves of the wing stroke cycle, as observed in fishes using the caudal or pectoral fins for locomotion, but not in other birds in level forward flight. Unpowered gliding phases between wing strokes were observed in all species at swimming speeds less than 1.25 m/sec, while Emperor, King and Adelie penguins interpose gliding phases over a broad range of speeds. Videotape records reveal that length-specific speed is correlated with increases in wingbeat frequency and, for most of the species examined, stride length. These findings are in contrast to those reported for other, flying birds, which maintain a relatively constant wingbeat frequency but vary stride length with forward speed, and for most fishes, which vary speed with tailbeat frequency but maintain a constant stride length. The results are somewhat comparable to those reported for Cymatogaster , a fish which uses the pectoral fins for locomotion. Drag coefficients of three gliding Emperor penguins were 2.1, 3.0 and 3.0 × 10-⁻³ at Reynolds numbers of 1.25, 1.62 and 1.76 × 10⁶, respectively.     

Self-Rehabilitation of a Captive American Crow at Binghamton Zoo

The behavioral transition from an entirely unflighted-to-flighted, female yearling American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) in captivity in a specially designed exhibit was documented at the Binghamton Zoo at Ross Park in Binghamton, NY. Upon arrival, the focal crow had no complete primary feathers or retrices and had been in captivity since fledging. She apparently had never flown successfully and was using her legs and an abnormal body orientation to cushion her landing on the ground. In a social and physical environment with 3 flying companion crows and staggered perches, she developed and appeared to “practice” routines that ultimately resulted in her recovering normal body posture and flight ability. The crow’s practice routine was recorded during daily observations using an ethogram of social and locomotor behaviors. Both enclosure design and the social environment may have provided an ideal setting for the self-motivation of practice and this recovery. Attention to the potential for such practice could facilitate rehabilitation in individuals for whom rehabilitation was not thought possible.     

Interaction sequences between chimpanzees and human visitors at the Zoo

Data were collected on the behavior and physical characteristics of 259 human visitors and 24 chimpanzees at Chester Zoo. The successive responses of humans and chimpanzees to each other's behavior were recorded, the resulting long sequence being referred to as an interaction sequence. There was no particular set of characteristics that distinguished interactors from noninteractors in either humans or chimpanzees, although there was some evidence that chimpanzees were particularly likely to respond to men carrying objects. Chimpanzee responses were random with respect to the previous human behavior, but human responses were significantly associated with the preceding chimpanzee behavior. In particular, chimpanzee sounds were likely to be followed by human sounds, and begging was likely to be followed by the offer of food. Interaction sequences varied in length, but 9% of chimpanzee-initiated sequences went as far as a ninth interaction. Sequences resulted in the chimpanzees being given food in 25% of human-initiated, but only 8% of chimpanzee-initiated sequences. The results are consistent with the interpretation that humans and chimpanzees are motivated to interact with one another and that the chimpanzees do this primarily to obtain food. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Fifty years of chimpanzee demography at Taronga Park Zoo

There has been a captive Pan troglodytes colony at Taronga Park Zoo in Sydney, Australia, since the mid-1930s. Demographic data on these animals were first analyzed in 1986; however, further information collected for 15 years since then is now available. The reproductive histories of 33 females in the colony have been recorded, and these data form the largest collection of captive chimpanzee data from a setting that has involved natural breeding conditions since the mid-1960s. These data were analyzed in conjunction with data from wild populations to establish the degree of variability present within chimpanzee reproductive parameters, and to identify which distinctive life history characteristics persist in well-provisioned, natural-fertility populations. The age at first birth for the chimpanzee females is 9.8 yr on average (n=16), which is 1-4.8 yr earlier than the average for wild populations. In line with this accelerated reproduction, birth intervals are also significantly shorter than those in noncaptive chimpanzee populations. The median birth interval for all surviving infants (based on a Kaplan-Meier survival analysis) is 49 months (n=43) compared to 62+ months for wild groups. At the same time, infant mortality remains high. The data confirm distinctive features of the life history of common chimpanzees, including later maturation, long birth intervals, a relatively invariant fertility schedule, and high juvenile mortality. However, aspects of both fertility and mortality are significantly related to social circumstances, indicating that in common chimpanzees, as in humans, life history characters may represent ecological and social adaptations rather than species-fixed characteristics.