A simple technique to repair a hand fracture in a captive Siamang

A 5‐year‐old female Siamang (Hylobates syndactilus) in captivity sustained a displaced closed fracture of the proximal phalanx of the middle digit, resulting in finger deformity and hand functional disability. Anatomical reduction and stabilization of the fracture were obtained surgically using two multifilament wire sutures. The primate had a successful functional recovery.     

Empty Nest: A Case Study of Maternal Response to Separation From a Juvenile Offspring in a Captive Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus abelii)

Improving the welfare of captive nonhuman primates requires evaluating the stressors created by the captive environment and reducing their negative effects. Social separation, although sometimes necessary for managing the genetic diversity of captive populations of animals, causes both psychological and physiological stress in human and primate monkey infants. Few studies have examined the maternal response of great ape mothers to separation from their offspring. This article describes the behavioral changes of a mother orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) after separation from her juvenile daughter. We collected data on measures of proximity and social behavior before the separation of the mother-infant dyad and of locomotion, arboreality, abnormal behavior, solitary behavior, and vocalization both before and after separation. We observed no behavioral indications of protest but observed some indications of despair after separation: decreased locomotion, increased inactivity, and increased self-directed behavior. In addition, we observed increases in arboreality and object-oriented behavior during morning sessions. These findings suggest that mother-juvenile separation in orangutans might be less stressful for mothers than might be expected. Such research has implications for the welfare and management of captive animals.     

Empty Nest: A Case Study of Maternal Response to Separation From a Juvenile Offspring in a Captive Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus abelii)

Improving the welfare of captive nonhuman primates requires evaluating the stressors created by the captive environment and reducing their negative effects. Social separation, although sometimes necessary for managing the genetic diversity of captive populations of animals, causes both psychological and physiological stress in human and primate monkey infants. Few studies have examined the maternal response of great ape mothers to separation from their offspring. This article describes the behavioral changes of a mother orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) after separation from her juvenile daughter. We collected data on measures of proximity and social behavior before the separation of the mother-infant dyad and of locomotion, arboreality, abnormal behavior, solitary behavior, and vocalization both before and after separation. We observed no behavioral indications of protest but observed some indications of despair after separation: decreased locomotion, increased inactivity, and increased self-directed behavior. In addition, we observed increases in arboreality and object-oriented behavior during morning sessions. These findings suggest that mother-juvenile separation in orangutans might be less stressful for mothers than might be expected. Such research has implications for the welfare and management of captive animals.     

A Comparison of Zoo Animal Behavior in the Presence of Familiar and Unfamiliar People

As recorded in domestic nonhuman animals, regular interactions between animals in zoos and keepers and the resulting relationship formed (human–animal relationship [HAR]) are likely to influence the animals' behaviors with associated welfare consequences. HAR formation requires that zoo animals distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people. This ability was tested by comparing zoo animal behavioral responses to familiar (routine) keepers and unfamiliar keepers (participants in the “Keeper for the Day” program). Study subjects included 1 African elephant (Loxodonta Africana), 3 Rothschild's giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi), 2 Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), and 2 slender-tailed meerkats (Suricata suricatta). Different behavior was evident and observed as decreased avoidance behavior toward familiar keepers (t₇ = 6.00, p < .001). This finding suggests the zoo animals have a lower level of fear toward familiar keepers. Keeper familiarity did not significantly affect any other behavioral measure. This finding suggests that in the current study, unfamiliar keeper presence did not appear to have detrimental effects. Furthermore, unfamiliar keeper–animal interactions could provide an increased number of positive human–animal interactions and potentially enhance animal welfare.     

On the genesis of a group of Siamang

A population of siamang in lowland dipterocarp forest at Kuala Lompat, Pahang, Malaysia, was studied discontinuously between April 1969 and November 1971. Between March and May 1970 a sub-adult male in the main study group became increasingly peripheral. The frequency of aggressive interactions with the adult male increased, and the sub-adult played a greater part in group calling sessions. These changes coincided with the onset of sexual activity between the adult pair. By October 1970 the sub-adult male had left the group, established a territory in an adjacent vacant area of forest, and been joined by a young adult female. A second, older female joined the new group in April 1971, left it again in July, and returned in September. Social relations within the new group were unstable, and its activities were less coordinated than that of the old group. It is suggested that the intolerance of the adult male during a period of reproductive activity, together with the maturation of the sub-adult, were the crucial factors in the latter leaving the group, and that the sub-adult's increased participation in group calling played a part in attracting females.     

食物丰容对圈养猩猩行为的影响

于2007年2～4月对成都动物园圈养猩猩"铁里"进行了两个食物丰容试验,即用PVC+轮胎和圆木+轮胎试验,每期8 d,观察和记录了猩猩在丰容试验前、后以及两种丰容方式中的各种行为发生次数.结果 表明食物丰容有效地恢复了圈养猩猩的多种摄食行为,增加了猩猩的运动相关行为,减少了休息相关行为;但对刻板行为的影响不明显.     

Speech-Like Rhythm in a Voiced and Voiceless Orangutan Call

The evolutionary origins of speech remain obscure. Recently, it was proposed that speech derived from monkey facial signals which exhibit a speech-like rhythm of ∼5 open-close lip cycles per second. In monkeys, these signals may also be vocalized, offering a plausible evolutionary stepping stone towards speech. Three essential predictions remain, however, to be tested to assess this hypothesis'' validity; (i) Great apes, our closest relatives, should likewise produce 5Hz-rhythm signals, (ii) speech-like rhythm should involve calls articulatorily similar to consonants and vowels given that speech rhythm is the direct product of stringing together these two basic elements, and (iii) speech-like rhythm should be experience-based. Via cinematic analyses we demonstrate that an ex-entertainment orangutan produces two calls at a speech-like rhythm, coined “clicks” and “faux-speech.” Like voiceless consonants, clicks required no vocal fold action, but did involve independent manoeuvring over lips and tongue. In parallel to vowels, faux-speech showed harmonic and formant modulations, implying vocal fold and supralaryngeal action. This rhythm was several times faster than orangutan chewing rates, as observed in monkeys and humans. Critically, this rhythm was seven-fold faster, and contextually distinct, than any other known rhythmic calls described to date in the largest database of the orangutan repertoire ever assembled. The first two predictions advanced by this study are validated and, based on parsimony and exclusion of potential alternative explanations, initial support is given to the third prediction. Irrespectively of the putative origins of these calls and underlying mechanisms, our findings demonstrate irrevocably that great apes are not respiratorily, articulatorilly, or neurologically constrained for the production of consonant- and vowel-like calls at speech rhythm. Orangutan clicks and faux-speech confirm the importance of rhythmic speech antecedents within the primate lineage, and highlight potential articulatory homologies between great ape calls and human consonants and vowels.     

A Case Study of the De Novo Evolution of a Complex Odometric Behavior in Digital Organisms

Investigating the evolution of animal behavior is difficult. The fossil record leaves few clues that would allow us to recapitulate the path that evolution took to build a complex behavior, and the large population sizes and long time scales required prevent us from re-evolving such behaviors in a laboratory setting. We present results of a study in which digital organisms–self-replicating computer programs that are subject to mutations and selection–evolved in different environments that required information about past experience for fitness-enhancing behavioral decisions. One population evolved a mechanism for step-counting, a surprisingly complex odometric behavior that was only indirectly related to enhancing fitness. We examine in detail the operation of the evolved mechanism and the evolutionary transitions that produced this striking example of a complex behavior.     

动物园展馆评估系统的建立及应用

在全面阐述动物园展馆评估方法的基础上,建立了从游客、动物和员工三个角度评估展馆的新的指标体系,并在搬迁前哈尔滨动物园的象馆、猩猩馆和水禽馆应用了该方法。评估结果显示：象馆的综合评估总分为84．1分,水禽馆为83．5分,猩猩馆为58．8分。象馆和水禽馆的总体使用效果稍好,而猩猩馆在平面布局、通风、采光和排水设施等方面存在问题,未能很好地吸引游客、保障动物健康和方便员工操作。最后针对评估结果提出了新展馆设计的几点建议。     

Orangutan Nesting Behavior in Disturbed Forest of Sabah,Malaysia: Implications for Nest Census

High concentrations of orangutans remain in the multiple-use forests of the Lower Kinabatangan, Sabah, Malaysia. Compared to primary forest, the habitat is highly fragmented, characterized by a low tree density (332 stems/ha), small tree size (83.6% of trees are <20 m high), low basal area (18 m²/ha), abundance of canopy gaps and high level of soil disturbance. The forest structure and composition influence orangutan nesting patterns, and thus directly influence the results of nest surveys used to determine orangutan population size. In logged forests, tall and large trees are the preferred nesting sites of orangutans. The scarcity of suitable nesting sites in the logged-over forests of Kinabatangan, could partly explain the lower daily rate of nest construction (r = 1.00) versus those of other orangutan populations. The nest decay rate t recorded at the study site (average ± SD = 202 ± 151 days) strongly depends on the species of tree in which a nest is built. Our results illustrate that the nest-related parameters used for orangutan censuses fluctuate among habitat types and emphasize the need to determine specific values of r for specific orangutan populations and of t for different tree species in order to achieve accurate analysis of census data.     

A Review of Elasmobranch Reproductive Behavior with a Case Study on the Nurse Shark, Ginglymostoma Cirratum

Elasmobranch reproductive behavior has been inferred from freshly caught specimens, laboratory examinations of reproductive structures and function, or determined from direct observations of captive or free swimming wild animals. Several general behaviors have been described including seasonal sexual segregation, courtship and copulation. Courtship behavior was inferred for many species from the presence of scars and tooth cuts on the female's body, and noted in more detail from underwater observations. Copulation has been directly observed in captive settings for several species of elasmobranchs in large aquaria, and in the wild for three species of urolophids and for Triaenodon obesus and Ginglymostoma cirratum. A detailed case history of nurse shark reproductive behavior is presented that may be used as a template for future work on shark reproductive behavior of other species. Our studies, using diver identifiable tags and in situ behavioral observations, provide unprecedented information on social structure and mating behavior in this species. Since 1993, 115 G. cirratum, 45 adults and 70 juveniles have been tagged in the Dry Tortugas, Florida. Observations show that adult males visit the study site every year with three males dominant. Individual adult females visit the study area to mate in alternate years. Polygyny and polyandry are common. Future research on reproductive behavior of elasmobranchs should address questions on male access to females, sexual selection and dominance hierarchies.     

Retreat Space and Human Visitor Density Moderate Undesirable Behavior in Petting Zoo Animals

This study focused on the relationship between nonhuman animal behavior and environment-specifically, between the undesirable behavior exhibited by domestic petting zoo animals in the presence of humans and the spatial design of the petting zoo environment. A spatial feature of a petting zoo referred to as a retreat space was manipulated so that it affected the animals' opportunity for individual control over interaction with humans. Three conditions were tested: no retreat space, semi-retreat space, and a full-retreat space. The subjects of this study were 5 African pygmy goats (Capra hircus) and 2 Romanov sheep (Ovis aries). Investigators used a focal sampling technique to analyze approximately 27 hr of behavioral data collected. The data were analyzed using multiple linear regression methods. The findings suggest that the full-retreat design beneficially moderated both sheep and goat behavior: Undesirable behaviors were lowest in the full-retreat condition. This study provides information that may improve human-animal interactions in a petting zoo setting and may increase animal well-being through exhibit design and management techniques.     

A Case Study of Primiparous Maternal and Infant Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Behavior

A primiparous mother and her infant were subjects of a longitudinal behavioral study at Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, Illinois. From November 1998 to November 1999, we collected a total of 100 hr of focal nonhuman animal instantaneous point sampling and all occurrence data on the mother and her infant. After 8 months, we introduced the 4-member focal group to an 8-member gorilla group, thus providing an opportunity to study the effect of the introduction on mother-infant behavior. Overall, time the pair spent physically apart was notably high with contact and proximate scores steadily decreasing over time. The infant was largely responsible for maintaining social proximity, rarely leaving the mother and frequently approaching her. In contrast, the mother left the infant frequently and approached the infant minimally. Maternal affiliative and nonaffiliative behaviors fluctuated throughout the study. Over time, both decreased. Despite a precarious maternal relationship, infant developmental trends were typical for captive gorillas. The results of this study suggest that allowing flexibility in judging maternal conduct can be of benefit to successful gorilla husbandry.     

Technology at the Zoo: The Influence of a Touchscreen Computer on Orangutans and Zoo Visitors

A computer‐controlled touchscreen apparatus (hereafter referred to as “touchscreen”) in the orangutan exhibit at Zoo Atlanta provides enrichment to the animals and allows cognitive research to take place on exhibit. This study investigated the impact of the touchscreen on orangutan behavior and visibility, as well as its impact on zoo visitors. Despite previous research suggesting that providing a single computer system may negatively affect orangutan behavior, there was not a significant increase in aggression, stereotypic, or distress‐related behaviors following the activation of the on‐exhibit touchscreen. We also investigated the possibility that zoo visitors may be negatively affected by technology because it deviates from naturalism. However, we did not find a change in stay time or overall experience rating when the computer was turned on. This research was the first to assess visitor attitudes toward technology at the zoo, and we found that visitors report highly positive attitudes about technology for both animals and visitors. If subjects visited the exhibit when the computer was turned on, they more strongly agreed that orangutans benefit from interacting with computerized enrichment. This study is the first investigation of an on‐exhibit touchscreen in group‐housed apes; our findings of no negative effects on the animals or zoo visitors and positive attitudes toward technology suggest a significant value of this practice. Zoo Biol 31:27;–39, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Orangutan Long Call Degradation and Individuality Over Distance: A Playback Approach

Researchers have documented individual vocal recognition in several primate species but do not know whether the changes in acoustical parameters that might occur over distance influence the informational content of a call that relates to individuality. Accordingly, we performed playback experiments using male orangutan long-distance calls (long calls) and rerecorded them at increasing distances from the source. We aimed to determine 1) which acoustical parameters changed over distance and 2) whether the percentage of calls that a discriminant analyses would assign to the correct individual would change over distance. High-frequency harmonics were attenuated and lost with increasing distance, but other parameters did not change. The percentage of calls assigned to the correct individual did not change over distance, indicating that even though there are some acoustical changes over distance the opportunity for other individuals to recognize the caller remains similar until ≤300 m, which was the maximum distance at which we rerecorded calls. Extending similar experiments to other primate species and other taxa, while subsequently conducting experiments to assess whether individual discrimination by receivers is indeed based on relatively stable acoustical parameters, would forward our understanding of acoustic communication.     

Setup of an In Vitro Test System for Basic Studies on Biofilm Behavior of Mixed-Species Cultures with Dental and Periodontal Pathogens

Background

Caries and periodontitis are important human diseases associated with formation of multi-species biofilms. The involved bacteria are intensively studied to understand the molecular basis of the interactions in such biofilms. This study established a basic in vitro single and mixed-species culture model for oral bacteria combining three complimentary methods. The setup allows a rapid screening for effects in the mutual species interaction. Furthermore, it is easy to handle, inexpensive, and reproducible.

Methods

Streptococcus mitis, S. salivarius and S. sanguinis, typical inhabitants of the healthy oral cavity, S. mutans as main carriogenic species, and Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Parvimonas micra, S. intermedius and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans as periodontitis-associated bacteria, were investigated for their biofilm forming ability. Different liquid growth media were evaluated. Safranin-staining allowed monitoring of biofilm formation under the chosen conditions. Viable counts and microscopy permitted investigation of biofilm behavior in mixed-species and transwell setups.

Findings

S. mitis, F. nucleatum, P. gingivalis and P. micra failed to form biofilm structures. S. mutans, S. sanguinis, S. intermedius and S. salivarius established abundant biofilm masses in CDM/sucrose. A. actinomycetemcomitans formed patchy monolayers. For in depth analysis S. mitis, S. mutans and A. actinomycetemcomitans were chosen, because i) they are representatives of the physiological-, cariogenic and periodontitis-associated bacterial flora, respectively and ii) their difference in their biofilm forming ability. Microscopic analysis confirmed the results of safranin staining. Investigation of two species combinations of S. mitis with either S. mutans or A. actinomycetemcomitans revealed bacterial interactions influencing biofilm mass, biofilm structure and cell viability.

Conclusions

This setup shows safranin staining, microscopic analysis and viable counts together are crucial for basic examination and evaluation of biofilms. Our experiment generated meaningful results, exemplified by the noted S. mitis influence, and allows a fast decision about the most important bacterial interactions which should be investigated in depth.