Visitor influence on the behavior of captive greater rheas (Rhea americana, Rheidae Aves)

Visitors can affect and reduce the welfare of nonhuman animals. The Belo Horizonte Zoo, Brazil, had a group of greater rheas intended for reintroduction to the wild. Because this group received public visitation, evaluating its effect on the birds' behavior and welfare was important. The study conducted 60 hr of behavioral observations: 30 with, and 30 without, visitors in front of the birds' enclosure. The study, conducted April-December 2009, collected data using scan sampling with instantaneous recording of behavior every minute. The study collected data on public behavior, visitor density, and time spent observing the birds. More than 4,000 persons visited the birds' enclosure: 9.86 s average time spent. Public behaviors most expressed were walking-watching-talking and stopped-watching-talking; visitors or not, greater rheas' most expressed behaviors (inversed between treatments) were foraging and walking alert; defecating/urinating and other behaviors differed statistically between treatments. Walking alert was most expressed in the presence of visitors; defecating/urinating and other behaviors were most expressed in their absence. Greater rheas seemed to habituate to visitors. Birds' behaviors differed little in visitors' presence or absence.     

Environmental influences on stereotypy and the activity budget of Indian leopards (Panthera pardus) in four zoos in Southern India

To eliminate abnormal behaviors in leopards (Panthera pardus), such as stereotypic pacing, by utilizing environmental enrichment techniques, a proper understanding of their behavior in captive environments is required. Hence there is a need for animal welfare studies in Indian zoos. The activity budgets of 16 leopards were recorded across four southern Indian zoos: Thiruvananthapuram Zoo, Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Shri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, and the Guindy Children's Park. Of the 16 study animals, 14 were studied on‐exhibit on zoo holidays as well as on days with visitors present, and all 16 individuals were studied off‐exhibit on other days with visitors present. The 11 behaviors recorded were categorized into active, resting, and stereotypic behaviors. Leopards exhibited higher levels of activity in the on‐exhibit enclosures on days with no visitors. Feeding time influenced the behavioral repertoire of all 14 leopards studied on‐exhibit. Lower proportions of resting were exhibited during the hours before feeding. The proportion of active behaviors differed significantly across zoos. Stereotypic pacing levels were not influenced by the presence of visitors or by feeding time, but was significantly influenced by enclosure features. Higher levels of stereotypic pacing were exhibited in off‐exhibit than on‐exhibit enclosures. Our study shows that the behavior of captive leopards is influenced by enclosure type, feeding regime, and the presence of visitors. Zoo Biol 21:585–595, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Failure of captive-born greater rheas (Rhea americana, Rheidae, Aves) to discriminate between predator and nonpredator models

The capacity to recognize and respond to predators can be lost by captive animals. Habituation to humans caused by the captive environment can be transferred to other stimuli, such as predators, a situation that conservation biologists wish to avoid. Greater rheas are threatened South American birds, for which there are plans for reintroduction programs in Brazil. The goal of this study was to evaluate the behavioral responses of captive-born greater rheas to different models of predators and nonpredators. Seventeen captive-born greater rheas, divided into four groups, from the Belo Horizonte Zoo, Brazil were studied. Three predator and three nonpredator models were presented to the birds and their behavioral responses recorded. Predators versus nonpredator models and the behavior of rheas in three experimental phases (baseline, models, and postmodels) were analyzed. Captive-born greater rheas modified their behaviors in the presence of both predator/nonpredator models, increasing alert and wary behaviors (alert, observing, and pacing behaviors: P?<?0.01), showing some degree of antipredator behavior persistence, but they were unable to discriminate between predator and nonpredator models (all behaviors: P?>?0.05). In conclusion, antipredator training should be implemented to develop the expression of this behavior before reintroductions are attempted.     

Does Rearing Laying Hens in Aviaries Adversely Affect Long-Term Welfare following Transfer to Furnished Cages?

This study tests the hypothesis that hens that are reared in aviaries but produce in furnished cages experience poorer welfare in production than hens reared in caged systems. This hypothesis is based on the suggestion that the spatial restriction associated with the transfer from aviaries to cages results in frustration or stress for the aviary reared birds. To assess the difference in welfare between aviary and cage reared hens in production, non-beak trimmed white leghorn birds from both rearing backgrounds were filmed at a commercial farm that used furnished cage housing. The videos were taken at 19 and 21 weeks of age, following the birds'' transition to the production environment at 16 weeks. Videos were analysed in terms of the performance of aversion-related behaviour in undisturbed birds, comfort behaviour in undisturbed birds, and alert behaviour directed to a novel object in the home cage. A decrease in the performance of the former behaviour and increase in the performance of the latter two behaviours indicates improved welfare. The results showed that aviary reared birds performed more alert behaviour near to the object than did cage reared birds at 19 but not at 21 weeks of age (P = 0.03). Blood glucose concentrations did not differ between the treatments (P>0.10). There was a significant difference in mortality between treatments (P = 0.000), with more death in aviary reared birds (5.52%) compared to cage birds (2.48%). The higher mortality of aviary-reared birds indicates a negative effect of aviary rearing on bird welfare, whereas the higher duration of alert behavior suggests a positive effect of aviary rearing.     

Activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) in open versus closed exhibit designs

Although many studies investigating the impacts of zoo exhibit designs on captive animals exist, none have been performed on how they influence the behavior and welfare of captive Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). Here, we assess the impact of exhibit design on the activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies. We compared animal behavior in two open exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors permitted) to two closed exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors prohibited). Behavioral data were collected using focal sampling, and spatial distribution was recorded on exhibit maps at regular time intervals. We found a significant increase in feeding and interactive behaviors in closed exhibits in comparison to open exhibits. However, other behaviors such as resting, locomotion, and vigilance did not vary with design. Functional use of space was similar between both designs; however, the effect of habituation may be relevant to consider in future studies. Although some support for visitor effects were present, our study provided no evidence for strong impacts of exhibit design on Bennett's wallaby welfare. Our study emphasizes the need for additional research into the impacts of how zoo environments affect Bennett's wallaby behavior and welfare.     

圈养獐春夏季昼间行为时间分配及活动节律

2008 年3 ～7 月,在上海市浦东新区华夏公园进行獐重引入试点,采用瞬时扫描取样法和全事件记录法,对圈养条件下24 只獐(12 雌,12 雄)春夏季昼间行为时间分配及活动节律进行了观察。结果表明:休息是春夏季最主要的行为方式,其次是摄食和运动。獐的昼间行为具有明显的节律性,以晨昏活动为主,主要活动时间集中在06:00 ～08:00 和16:00 ～18:00。单因素方差分析(One-way ANOVA analysis)和Mann-Whitney U 检验表明,在时间分配上,春、夏季休息、站立、排遗、梳理和运动行为差异极显著;雌雄间休息、站立、反刍、梳理和警戒行为差异极显著。雌性春、夏季站立、排遗、梳理、运动和社会行为差异极显著,摄食差异显著;雄性春、夏季休息、摄食、梳理、警戒和社会行为差异极显著,站立、反刍、排遗和运动行为差异显著。本研究结果表明重引入獐的行为时间分配和活动节律与野生种群相似,动物福利得到较好满足,对下一步在上海地区的种群复壮和迁地野放等具有重要意义。     

The Effects of Automated Scatter Feeders on Captive Grizzly Bear Activity Budgets

Although captive bears are popular zoo attractions, they are known to exhibit high levels of repetitive behaviors (RBs). These behaviors have also made them particularly popular subjects for welfare research. To date, most research on ursid welfare has focused on various feeding methods that seek to increase time spent searching for, extracting, or consuming food. Prior research indicates an average of a 50% reduction in RBs when attempts are successful and, roughly, a 50% success rate across studies. This research focused on decreasing time spent in an RB while increasing the time spent active by increasing time spent searching for, extracting, and consuming food. The utility of timed, automated scatter feeders was examined for use with captive grizzly bears (Ursis arctos horribilis). Findings include a significant decrease in time spent in RB and a significant increase in time spent active while the feeders were in use. Further, the bears exhibited a wider range of behaviors and a greater use of their enclosure.     

Visitor behavior in the National Zoo's reptile house

Visitor behavior was evaluated in the National Zoo's reptile house. Nearly 600 visitors were tracked; time spent in the house and time spent looking at exhibits were noted. These parameters were investigated by sex, age, and type of visitor grouping. The most looked-at exhibits were determined. For 573 visitors, the mean time in the reptile house was 14.7 minutes. Only about 8 minutes was spent looking at exhibits, and this time was strikingly similar for age, sex, and group type. Time spent looking at exhibits was negatively correlated with visitor density. Amphibians and lizards were looked at for less time than snakes and turtles. Crocodilians were looked at longer than the other taxonomic groups, while larger animals in all groups were looked at longer than smaller ones. This study and other similar studies imply that the public does not respond to exhibits with the expected interest and enthusiasm. It is hoped that with a better understanding of the public through research, zoo staff can improve visitor interest in the exhibits.     

The effect of visitors on the behavior of zoo-housed western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

Primates, especially apes, are popular with the public, often attracting large crowds. These crowds could cause behavioral change in captive primates, whether positive, neutral, or negative. We examined the impact of visitors on the behavior of six western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), observing the troop over 6 weeks during high season (4.5 hr/day, 35 days, May–July 2016). We used focal scan sampling to determine activity budget and enclosure usage, and focal continuous sampling to identify bouts of anxiety-related behavior (visitor-directed vigilance, self-scratching, and aggression). Both daily zoo-entry numbers (V_GATE) and instantaneous crowds at the exhibit (V_DENSITY) were measured. Overall, V_GATE had little effect across behaviors. However, consistent with the more acute time frame of measurement, V_DENSITY was a better predictor of behavior; at high crowd volumes, we observed significant group-level changes in activity budget (increased inactivity, increased locomotion, and decreased environment-related behaviors), increase in some anxiety-related behaviors, and decreased enclosure usage. Although contributing similar effects, it could not be determined if crowd numbers, composition, or noise most affected the troop, nor any chronic effects of exposure to large crowds. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that measures to minimize the impacts of large crowds at the exhibit would be beneficial. Furthermore, we highlight potential discrepancies between common methods for measuring visitor numbers: V_GATE is less sensitive to detecting visitor effects on behavioral indices than V_DENSITY. Future studies should appropriately match the biological time frame of welfare indicators and visitor measures used to ensure the reliability of findings.     

Siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) and White-Cheeked Gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) Show Few Behavioral Differences Related to Zoo Attendance

The effect of visitors on behavior and welfare of nonhuman animals in the zoo has been an active research topic during the last few decades. Although research has variously shown negative or positive impacts of zoo visitors on animals in captivity, previous primate research at Disney's Animal Kingdom® suggests the importance of visual barriers in allowing animals to cope with large crowds. Examining this further, this study monitored the behavior of white-cheeked gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) and siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) in large, open exhibits. Behavioral data showed rates of social behavior and percentage of time engaged in solitary behavior did not differ between low and high visitor-attendance days. Both gibbons and siamangs spent more time in areas away from the public on high attendance days. Supporting previous findings, results imply visual barriers and ability to retreat from crowds may have provided these animals with choice and minimized potential negative visitor impact. Future research should focus on the relationship between attendance and actual crowds at exhibits; it should utilize multi-institutional methodologies to control for variance and look for individual and demographic differences between individuals.     

Reactions of zoo visitors to free-ranging monkeys

This study assessed the potential of two types of primate exhibit both for enhancing zoo visitors' interest, knowledge, and enjoyment and for promoting conservation education. Visitors' reactions to a free-ranging group of cotton-top tamarins were compared with their responses to caged tamarins in three ways: 1) timing how long visitors spent at each exhibit, 2) recording the comments made by visitors about the exhibits, and 3) asking visitors to respond to questionnaires about the two exhibits. The results showed that the free-ranging group of tamarins provoked wider comment from members of the public than caged groups and that visitors were willing to spend much more time looking for and watching monkeys in trees than monkeys in cages. Visitors felt that improvements in the animals' welfare were obtained from allowing them to live free in the trees, thought that they could learn more from such groups than from caged animals, and enjoyed seeing the free-ranging tamarins more than the monkeys in cages. These results suggest that developing more naturalistic zoo exhibits can have considerable benefits not only for the animals involved, but also for public education in conservation issues. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Factors affecting the behavior of captive white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) and the accuracy of ad-hoc keeper data

Although white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) are common in captivity, few behavioral studies have been conducted and there is seemingly no research for immersive exhibits where potential for visitor effects is high. Moreover, little information exists on possible effects of weather and temperature on rhino outside their native range. Here we analyze 14,501 observations of rhino in a drive-through enclosure. Data were collected by researchers (n = 12,160 datapoints) and keepers (n = 2341 datapoints) over a 4-month period. We aimed to: (1) quantify behavior using detailed researcher-collected data and contemporaneous but ad hoc keeper-collected data; (2) compare datasets statistically; (3) establish effects of visitors, temperature, and weather on behavior; and (4) assess the influence of visitors on similarity of researcher/keeper datasets. Activity budgets were similar to the wild and the single previous study from a traditional (nondrive-through) enclosure. There was some discrepancy in activity budgets between researcher and keeper data due to significant differences in recorded frequency of two rare behaviors (horn rub; social interaction) and two behaviors that could be easily confused (grazing vs. standing with head-down): recording of other behaviors matched well. Weather and temperature affected behavior, with rhino becoming more sedentary (−locomotion, grazing; +resting, standing, and sedentary eating of hay) on hot/sunny days compared to cool/wet days. The number of visitor vehicles had a fairly negligible effect but resting was lower on busy days, possibly as vigilance increased. The match between researcher/keeper datasets was lowest when visitor numbers were high, suggesting visitors might affect keeper ability to accurately record behavior.     

Zoo Playgrounds: A Source of Enrichment or Stress for a Group of Nearby Cockatoos? A Case Study

There is increasing evidence that in some circumstances, zoo visitors may be aversive stimuli to nonhuman animals housed in zoos. Yet, most previous research has focused on primates with little attention given to numerous other species who are housed in zoos. The focus animal of this project was the cockatoo, a species who has received minimal attention in zoo-based research. Furthermore, although the influence of the zoo setting has become increasingly important in visitor effect studies, this is the 1st study to quantify the effect of activity at a children's playground on zoo animals. There was an investigation on the effect of a zoo playground on the behavior of citron-crested and Moluccan cockatoos (Cacatua sulphurea citrinocristata and Cacatua moluccensis), as well as the effect of children standing in front of the birds' aviaries. The results showed that in some circumstances, the Moluccan cockatoos retreated from visitors, while the citron-crested cockatoos did not retreat from visitors and became more social in the presence of visitors. These findings highlight the importance of careful selection of species and individual animals to be housed near zoo playgrounds.     

The influence of environmental enrichment on Chinese visitor behavior

Welfare improvements for nonhuman animals should aim to satisfy the needs of visitors as well as those of the animals. Little research has been conducted, however, and existing work is confined to zoos in developed countries. This article reports the behavioral responses of Chinese visitors to environmental enrichment improvements in a zoo enclosure. Visit, viewing, and stopping behaviors significantly increased at the transformed exhibit, indicating that it provoked greater visitor interest. Furthermore, increased intragroup behaviors suggested that the exhibit probably motivated visitors to interact socially. The positive impact of the exhibit changes supports the enrichment efforts taking place in zoos around the world. The changes also provide encouragement for zoos in developing countries such as China because greater visitor interest provides a strong argument and an incentive for improving welfare standards.     

Postoccupancy evaluation of staff,visitors, and three species of animals in a zoo setting

Postoccupancy evaluation (POE) was used to assess newly constructed zoo exhibits from the perspective of three user groups: zoo staff, zoo visitors, and the animals. Staff represents a generally understudied user group in zoo-based POEs. We asked staff to rate the animals' space, the visitors' space, and the staff's space at previous and new exhibits. We also compared zoo visitors' ratings of the animals' behavior and environments, overall exhibit impressions, and the time visitors spent viewing previous and new exhibits. Lastly, we compared activity and space use of a Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), two red pandas (Ailurus fulgens), and one rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in their previous and new exhibits. Staff rated animal, visitor, and staff areas higher at the new exhibits compared to the previous exhibits. Visitors also rated several factors higher and spent more time at the new exhibits. The most naturalistic exhibit received the most favorable ratings in all categories and animal activity increased visitor stay time. We found that red pandas were less active in their new exhibit, and the Komodo dragon and rhino showed no difference in activity. The red pandas and the Komodo dragon used more available space in their new exhibits; however, we recommend using Electivity index to examine resource preferences for these species, whose enclosure use has been less studied than large mammals. We emphasize the importance of including staff in zoo-based POE, make other recommendations for future POE studies, and discuss various factors that could have influenced our results.     

Life Sciences Learning: An Approach That Promotes Progress and Respects Life

Welfare improvements for nonhuman animals should aim to satisfy the needs of visitors as well as those of the animals. Little research has been conducted, however, and existing work is confined to zoos in developed countries. This article reports the behavioral responses of Chinese visitors to environmental enrichment improvements in a zoo enclosure. Visit, viewing, and stopping behaviors significantly increased at the transformed exhibit, indicating that it provoked greater visitor interest. Furthermore, increased intragroup behaviors suggested that the exhibit probably motivated visitors to interact socially. The positive impact of the exhibit changes supports the enrichment efforts taking place in zoos around the world. The changes also provide encouragement for zoos in developing countries such as China because greater visitor interest provides a strong argument and an incentive for improving welfare standards.     

Enclosure utilization,activity budgets,and social behavior of captive chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) during the rut

An observational study of chamois behavior during the rut was conducted at the Los Angeles Zoo. The herd consisted of an adult male, two adult females, two subadult females, and two kids (1.1). During the 13-week study, observers collected scan data on all animals and recorded all occurrences of selected social behaviors during interactions which involved the adult male. Scan observations showed that open areas of the enclosure close to the public were the least preferred, and areas with good rest places were used most. Overall the herd spent 73% of their time stationary, 13% foraging/feeding, 6% moving, and less than 5% each in object investigation, maintenance, play, and social behavior. The adult male rested and fed less, and stood vigilant and engaged in social behavior more frequently than the others. Nearest neighbor data showed clear patterns of kin association beyond the mother-last kid bond. The adult male interacted most often with the regular keepers, the subordinate female and the oldest subadult female. Interactions with the females consisted mostly of herding and sexual behaviors, while those with keepers were almost exclusively competitive/aggressive. While most findings paralleled those from studies of wild chamois, no study has previously reported long-lasting associations among kin.     

Visitor Behaviors and Perceptions of Jaguar Activities

ABSTRACT

Zoo animals serve an important function in helping educate the public about their conservation needs. Despite this important function, little is understood about how visitors perceive different zoo exhibits and the animals that reside within them. In the present study, the behaviors displayed by two jaguars located at the Woodland Park Zoo were correlated with visitor behaviors and perceptions. Overall, visitors perceived their enjoyment to be lower when a jaguar was out of sight and rated the behavioral welfare of the jaguar to be lower when it was engaged in stereotypic behaviors. In addition, visitors who described a jaguar's behavior as stereotypic were significantly more likely to give lower ratings than those who perceived the jaguar to be active. It is suggested that by understanding how visitors perceive exhibited animals, zoos can address these perceptions in order to create more positive experiences for their visitors.     

Relationship of early infant state measures to behavior over the first year of life in the tufted capuchin monkey (Cebus apella)

Data on activity states were collected from 29 group-housed capuchin monkey (Cebus apella) infants for 3 h each week from birth to 11 weeks of age. The amounts of time spent in sleeping/drowsy, alert–quiet, and alert–active states were measured in these subjects. Videotaped observations of these infants were recorded 3 times/week in the home cage over the first year of life and were scored for a number of social and exploratory behaviors. The extent to which early infant activity state scores predicted later behavior in the home cage was examined. Infant state measures correlated significantly with home cage behavior during months 2–6 in that infants that had been more active in early infancy spent more time alone, with other animals, and in exploration and play and less time with mothers than did quieter infants. Early state measures were less successful in predicting home cage scores beyond 8 months of age, whereas differences in behavior attributable to housing variables became more salient in the latter part of the first year. There was also a negative correlation between mother and infant activity in months 2 and 3, in that more sedentary mothers tended to have more active infants. Am. J. Primatol. 44:43–56, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc. This article is a U.S. Government work, and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.     

Time–activity budget of greater rheas (Rhea americana, Aves) on a human-disturbed area: the role of habitat, time of the day, season and group size

The aim of this study was to evaluate activity–time budget, habitat use and how seasonality and group size influence the expression of greater rhea behaviours. Greater rheas are threatened South American birds; habitat loss, predation and hunting are the main factors responsible for population declines. The study was conducted in farmlands within a matrix of commercial Eucalyptus plantation and remnants of natural habitats of cerrado vegetation (savannah-like) in southeastern Brazil. Rhea groups were located visually in different habitats visited monthly from January 2004 to December 2005. Time spent searching greater rheas in each habitat was equally distributed. Data were collected using scan sampling with instantaneous recording of behaviours every minute. The time–activity budget of greater rheas was influenced by habitat structure, time of the day, season and group size. Rheas spent more time in open areas than in forested areas (p < 0.001). Vigilance behaviours were more displayed in forested areas, in the dry season and by solitary and small groups of birds. Resting behaviours occurred more often in open lands and within groups with more than three rheas. Food availability, good visibility and low human presence are the possible factors for the preference of greater rheas for pasturelands. The results support the resource availability hypothesis, where it is expected that habitats with a higher food availability will be more used by the animals, group size hypothesis, where the scarcity of resources will lead to smaller groups of animals and that forestry modifies greater rheas habitat use and behaviours.