Interactive effects of ozone and climate on tree growth and water use in a southern Appalachian forest in the USA

* A lack of data on responses of mature tree growth and water use to ambient ozone (O(3)) concentrations has been a major limitation in efforts to understand and model responses of forests to current and future changes in climate. * Here, hourly to seasonal patterns of stem growth and sap flow velocity were examined in mature trees from a mixed deciduous forest in eastern Tennessee (USA) to evaluate the effects of variations in ambient O(3) exposure and climate on patterns of stem growth and water use. * Ambient O(3) caused a periodic slowdown in seasonal growth patterns that was attributable in part to amplification of diurnal patterns of water loss in tree stems. This response was mediated by statistically significant increases in O(3)-induced daily sap flow and led to seasonal losses in stem growth of 30-50% for most species in a high-O(3) year. * Decreased growth and increased water use of mature forest trees under episodically high ambient O(3) concentrations suggest that O(3) will amplify the adverse effects of increasing temperatures on forest growth and forest hydrology.     

Interactive influences of ozone and climate on streamflow of forested watersheds

The capacity of forests to mitigate global climate change can be negatively influenced by tropospheric ozone that impairs both photosynthesis and stomatal control of plant transpiration, thus affecting ecosystem productivity and watershed hydrology. We have evaluated individual and interactive effects of ozone and climate on late season streamflow for six forested watersheds (38–970 000 ha) located in the Southeastern United States. Models were based on 18–26 year data records for each watershed and involved multivariate analysis of interannual variability of late season streamflow in response to physical and chemical climate during the growing season. In all cases, some combination of ozone variables significantly improved model performance over climate‐only models. Effects of ozone and ozone × climate interactions were also consistently negative and were proportional to variations in actual ozone exposures, both spatially across the region and over time. Conservative estimates of the influence of ozone on the variability (R²) of observed flow ranged from 7% in the area of lowest ozone exposure in West Virginia to 23% in the areas of highest exposure in Tennessee. Our results are supported by a controlled field study using free‐air concentration enrichment methodology which indicated progressive ozone‐induced loss of stomatal control over tree transpiration during the summer in mixed aspen‐birch stands. Despite the frequent assumption that ozone reduces tree water loss, our findings support increasing evidence that ozone at near ambient concentrations can reduce stomatal control of leaf transpiration, and increase water use. Increases in evapotranspiration and associated streamflow reductions in response to ambient ozone exposures are expected to episodically increase the frequency and severity of drought and affect flow‐dependent aquatic biota in forested watersheds. Regional and global models of hydrologic cycles and related ecosystem functions should consider potential interactions of ozone with climate under both current and future warmer and ozone‐enriched climatic conditions.     

Influence of climate,soil moisture,and succession on forest carbon and nitrogen cycles

The interactions between the biotic processes of reproduction, growth, and death and the abiotic processes which regulate temperature and water availability, and the interplay between the biotic and abiotic processes regulating N and light availabilities are important in the dynamics of forest ecosystems. We have developed a computer simulation that assembles a model ecosystem which links these biotic and abiotic interactions through equations that predict decomposition processes, actual evapo-transpiration, soil water balance, nutrient uptake, growth of trees, and light penetration through the canopy. The equations and parameters are derived directly from field studies and observations of forests in eastern North America, resulting in a model that can make accurate quantitative predictions of biomass accumulation, N availability, soil humus development and net primary production.     

基于扩展的Budyko模型定量评估平江流域森林恢复和气候变异对季节性径流的影响

流域季节性径流变化反映了年内水资源的动态特征。在以森林为主的流域中,森林变化和气候变异被普遍认为是影响流域水文过程的两大驱动因素。因此在全球气候变化背景下,研究流域森林恢复和气候变异对流域季节性径流的影响,可为协调区域碳-水关系和制订可持续的森林经营管理策略提供参考。选择鄱阳湖流域上游的平江流域为研究对象,根据流域历史森林覆盖率变化情况,将研究期划分为参考期（1961-1985）和森林恢复期（1986-2006）,采用Mann-Kendall趋势分析研究流域长时期水文气象数据是否存在显著变化趋势。同时引入月干旱指数（潜在蒸散发和有效降雨的比率）,将一年定义为能量限制季（1-6月）和水分限制季（7-12月）,结合扩展的Budyko模型定量分析平江流域森林恢复和气候变异对季节性径流的相对贡献。在本研究流域整个研究期内（1961-2006）,通过Mann-Kendall趋势分析发现,研究流域水分限制季径流呈现显著增加趋势,而能量限制季水文和气候变量变化趋势均不显著。其次,相较于参考期,流域森林恢复使能量限制季径流降低了11.71 mm/a （24.40%）,使水分限制季径流增加了12.27 mm/a （17.23%）。同时,气候变异导致能量限制季径流减少了36.28 mm/a （75.60%）,而使水分限制季径流增加了58.94 mm/a （82.77%）。上述研究结果表明,森林恢复对径流影响具有累积效应。森林恢复对季节性径流具有积极的调节作用,同时季节性径流对森林恢复的响应存在时间差,而且森林恢复对径流的影响在能量限制季和水分限制季具有相互抵消的作用,气候变异与森林恢复的影响效应类似。此外,本研究也证实,平江流域季节性径流变化主要是受气候变化主导,但森林恢复对季节性径流的贡献也不容忽视。     

Responses of streamflow to climate variability and human activities in the Yanhe watershed,China

The effects of climate change and human activities on streamflow are of great importance for the water resource management, and these studies have attracted a lot of attention in recent years. In this study, we made an assessment of the annual streamflow record in the Yanhe watershed from 1960 to 2009 and analyzed the response of streamflow to changes in climate and human activities. The results indicated that the annual streamflow exhibited a decreasing trend (it decreased 41.90 mm). The main factor that influenced the annual streamflow was climate change, which can be seen to inform the result of a decrease of 25.27 mm (60.31%). Likewise, human activities caused the streamflow to decrease by 17.04 mm (40.67%). Finally, the mean effect of vegetation on the annual streamflow was approximately 104.84 mm. Moreover, the presence of vegetation had stronger effects on the streamflow in wetter years.     

Declining water yield from forested mountain watersheds in response to climate change and forest mesophication

Climate change and forest disturbances are threatening the ability of forested mountain watersheds to provide the clean, reliable, and abundant fresh water necessary to support aquatic ecosystems and a growing human population. Here, we used 76 years of water yield, climate, and field plot vegetation measurements in six unmanaged, reference watersheds in the southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina, USA to determine whether water yield has changed over time, and to examine and attribute the causal mechanisms of change. We found that annual water yield increased in some watersheds from 1938 to the mid‐1970s by as much as 55%, but this was followed by decreases up to 22% by 2013. Changes in forest evapotranspiration were consistent with, but opposite in direction to the changes in water yield, with decreases in evapotranspiration up to 31% by the mid‐1970s followed by increases up to 29% until 2013. Vegetation survey data showed commensurate reductions in forest basal area until the mid‐1970s and increases since that time accompanied by a shift in dominance from xerophytic oak and hickory species to several mesophytic species (i.e., mesophication) that use relatively more water. These changes in forest structure and species composition may have decreased water yield by as much as 18% in a given year since the mid‐1970s after accounting for climate. Our results suggest that changes in climate and forest structure and species composition in unmanaged forests brought about by disturbance and natural community dynamics over time can result in large changes in water supply.     

Interactive effects of nitrogen deposition, tropospheric ozone, elevated CO2 and land use history on the carbon dynamics of northern hardwood forests

Temperate forests are affected by a wide variety of environmental factors that stem from human industrial and agricultural activities. In the north‐eastern US, important change agents include tropospheric ozone, atmospheric nitrogen deposition, elevated CO₂, and historical human land use. Although each of these has received attention for its effects on forest carbon dynamics, integrated analyses that examine their combined effects are rare. To examine the relative importance of all of these factors on current forest growth and carbon balances, we included them individually and in combination in a forest ecosystem model that was applied over the period of 1700–2000 under different scenarios of air pollution and land use history. Results suggest that historical increases in CO₂ and N deposition have stimulated forest growth and carbon uptake, but to different degrees following agriculture and timber harvesting. These differences resulted from the effects of each land use scenario on soil C and N pools and on the resulting degree of growth limitations by carbon vs. nitrogen. Including tropospheric ozone in the simulations offset a substantial portion of the increases caused by CO₂ and N deposition. This result is particularly relevant given that ozone pollution is widespread across much of the world and because broad‐scale spatial patterns of ozone are coupled with patterns of nitrogen oxide emissions. This was demonstrated across the study region by a significant correlation between ozone exposure and rates of N deposition and suggests that the reduction of N‐induced carbon sinks by ozone may be a common phenomenon in other regions. Collectively, the combined effects of all physical and chemical factors we addressed produced growth estimates that were surprisingly similar to estimates obtained in the absence of any form of disturbance. The implication of this result is that intact forests may show relatively little evidence of altered growth since preindustrial times despite substantial changes in their physical and chemical environment.     

旱地小麦不同栽培模式对土壤水分和水分生产效率的影响

在陕西渭北黄土高原沟壑区,通过田间试验研究冬小麦不同栽培模式对旱地土壤水分和水分生产效率的影响。试验设栽培模式、施氮和密度等3种因子,栽培模式设露地栽培(常规)、秸秆覆盖(覆草)、地膜覆盖(平膜)、垄上覆膜沟中覆草垄沟种植(垄沟)4种方式;施氮设不施氮、施120kg／hm^2N和240kg／hm^2N三个水平;密度设播量180kg／hm^2和225kg／hm^2 2个水平。试验结果表明,不同栽培模式下土壤水分在不同生育期的变化趋势基本一致;平覆膜与垄沟种植均有良好的保墒和集水作用,平覆膜水分的生产效率比常规模式增加41．3％～52．4％;垄沟种植比常规模式增加38．8％～64．6％。覆草具有一定的保墒作用,在小麦生长前期及40cm以上的土层中效果明显,其水分生产效率高于常规种植的24．1％。氮肥对土壤贮水量具有极显著影响,但不同密度对土壤贮水量基本上无影响。     

2000-2019年中国南方竹林区水分利用效率时空特征及驱动机制

水分利用效率(Water Use Efficiency, WUE)是深入理解生态系统碳、水循环及两者耦合关系的重要指标,然而我国重要森林类型之一的竹林的WUE时空格局及其驱动机制研究不足。通过MODIS净初级生产力(NPP)和蒸散(ET)数据得到竹林区WUE,采用线性趋势法计算WUE年际变化率表征变化趋势,并应用地理加权回归(GWR)模型分析了WUE与气候和地形等10个驱动因子的关系,探究了中国南方竹林区近20年间(2000—2019)WUE驱动机制。结果表明：(1)2000—2019年中国南方竹林区WUE多年均值为0.89 gC m^-2 mm^-1,呈显著下降趋势,下降速率为0.0028 gC m^-2 mm^-1 a^-1,ET上升速度大于NPP上升速度是造成WUE下降的主要原因;WUE呈南高北低的空间分布格局,83.5%区域的WUE呈下降趋势。(2)基于GWR模型的WUE驱动力分析发现,WUE变化最强的驱动因子是CO₂浓度和年降水量,而海拔、坡度等地形因子的...     

黄土高原水土保持林对土壤水分的影响

黄土高原植被恢复的限制因素主要是土壤水分,植被与土壤水分关系的研究对黄土高原植被恢复具有重要意义.2008年7月1日至2009年10月31日间采用EnviroSMART土壤水分定位监测系统以每30min监测1次的频度,对晋西黄土区刺槐人工林地、油松人工林地、次生林地的土壤水分变化进行了研究.研究得出:次生林地0-150 cm土层中平均蓄水量为331.95mm,刺槐人工林地为233.85 mm,有整地措施的油松人工林地为314.85mm,刺槐人工林比次生林多消耗的98.10mm土壤水分主要来源于80 cm以下土层.次生林主要消耗0-80 cm土层的水分,而人工林不但对0-80 cm土层水分的消耗量大于次生林,对深层土壤的消耗也较次生林大,这将有可能导致人工林地深层土壤的“干化”.在土壤水分减少期(11-1月)刺槐人工林土壤水分的日均损耗量为0.86mm、油松人工林为0.82 mm、次生林为0.84 mm.土壤水分缓慢恢复期(2-5月)刺槐人工林地土壤水分的恢复速度0.90mm/d,油松人工林地为0.53 mm/d、次生林地为0.79 mm/d.土壤水分剧烈变化期(5-10月)刺槐人工林地土壤水分含量的极差为95.71mm,油松人工林地为179.1mm,次生林地为72.03mm.在干旱少雨的黄土高原进行植被恢复时,应多采取封山育林等方式,依靠自然力量形成能够与当地土壤水资源相协调的次生林,是防止人工植被过度耗水形成“干化层”、保障水土保持植被持续发挥生态服务功能的关键.     

Structural characteristics and canopy dynamics of Tsuga canadensis in forests of the southern Appalachian Mountains, USA

Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. forests of the southern Appalachian Mountains are currently facing imminent decline induced by a nonnative insect pest, the hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand). To effectively manage these forest systems now and in the future, land managers need baseline data on forest structure and dynamics prior to large-scale Tsuga canadensis mortality. Most of our knowledge concerning the dynamics of Tsuga canadensis forests comes from more northern locations such as the Great Lakes region and New England and, therefore, may not pertain to the ecological systems found within the southern Appalachian Mountains. We examined the structure and canopy dynamics of four Tsuga canadensis forest stands within the Cataloochee watershed, in the far eastern part of Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP). We characterized the environmental settings and vertical forest layers, as well as the diameter and age-structures of each Tsuga canadensis forest stand. These environmental and structural data showed that there were indeed differences between forest stands with and without successful Tsuga canadensis regeneration. The two forest stands exhibiting successful Tsuga canadensis regeneration were located above 1,000 m in elevation on well-drained, moderately steep slopes and had the greatest canopy openness. Structural data from these two forest stands indicated a history of more continuous Tsuga canadensis regeneration. We also constructed disturbance chronologies detailing the history of canopy response to disturbance events and related these to Tsuga canadensis regeneration within each forest stand. Student t-tests adjusted for unequal variances indicated significant differences in the number of release events per tree between forest stands with and without successful Tsuga canadensis regeneration. While forest stands with successful Tsuga canadensis regeneration were more frequently disturbed by minor to major canopy disturbances, events of moderate intensity were found to be most significant in terms of regeneration. These data will be of value to land managers maintaining stands of Tsuga canadensis where treatment for hemlock woolly adelgid infestation has been successful. In areas where treatment is impractical or unsuccessful, land managers will be able to use these data to restore Tsuga canadensis forests after the wave of hemlock woolly adelgid induced mortality has passed. As of August 2008, Joshua A. Kincaid will be a member of the Environmental Studies program at Shenandoah University in Winchester, Virginia, USA     

Scaling ozone responses of forest trees to the ecosystem level in a changing climate

Many uncertainties remain regarding how climate change will alter the structure and function of forest ecosystems. At the Aspen FACE experiment in northern Wisconsin, we are attempting to understand how an aspen/birch/maple forest ecosystem responds to long-term exposure to elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂) and ozone (O₃), alone and in combination, from establishment onward. We examine how O₃ affects the flow of carbon through the ecosystem from the leaf level through to the roots and into the soil micro-organisms in present and future atmospheric CO₂ conditions. We provide evidence of adverse effects of O₃, with or without co-occurring elevated CO₂, that cascade through the entire ecosystem impacting complex trophic interactions and food webs on all three species in the study: trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), paper birch (Betula papyrifera Marsh), and sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh). Interestingly, the negative effect of O₃ on the growth of sugar maple did not become evident until 3 years into the study. The negative effect of O₃ effect was most noticeable on paper birch trees growing under elevated CO₂. Our results demonstrate the importance of long-term studies to detect subtle effects of atmospheric change and of the need for studies of interacting stresses whose responses could not be predicted by studies of single factors. In biologically complex forest ecosystems, effects at one scale can be very different from those at another scale. For scaling purposes, then, linking process with canopy level models is essential if O₃ impacts are to be accurately predicted. Finally, we describe how outputs from our long-term multispecies Aspen FACE experiment are being used to develop simple, coupled models to estimate productivity gain/loss from changing O₃.     

应用SWAT模型研究潮河流域土地利用和气候变化对径流的影响

为定量分析潮河流域土地利用和气候变化对流域径流变化的影响,应用SWAT模型对流域上游至下游的大阁、戴营和下会3个水文站径流进行模拟,采用情景法分析径流对土地利用和气候变化的响应。在模型校准期和验证期采用两个参数:p因子和r因子来评价模拟的拟合度及不确定性。结果表明,3个水文站在校准期和验证期的p因子值分别为:0.70和0.77,0.87和0.82,0.92和0.78,r因子值分别为0.63和0.90,0.97和0.79,0.88和0.92,评价整个流域模拟有效性的模型目标函数g最佳值为0.66,说明该模型对潮河流域的产水量模拟具有很好的适用性。以1981—1990年为基准期,1991—2000年流域土地利用变化造成年径流量减少了4.10 mm,而气候变化导致年径流增加了29.68 mm;2001—2009年土地利用变化造成年径流量减少2.98mm,气候变化造成年径流量减少了14.30 mm。与1999年土地利用条件模拟径流值相比,几种极端情景法模拟分析结果表明:灌木林地情景下年径流增加了158.2%,草地情景下年径流增加了4.1%,林地和耕地情景下年径流分别减少23.7%和41.7%;不同气候变异情景模拟结果显示,径流对降水的变化敏感性高于对温度变化的敏感性,降水每增加10%,径流平均增加23.9%。温度每增加12%,径流平均减少6%。因此,在气候变化背景下,优化土地利用结构与方式是实现流域水资源科学管理的途径之一。     

陆地生态系统水分利用效率对气候变化的响应研究进展

气候变化显著影响陆地生态系统生产力以及水分利用格局,而水分利用效率(Water Use Efficiency,WUE)是衡量生态系统碳水耦合关系的重要指标之一。研究陆地生态系统水分利用效率对气候变化的响应,有助于深入理解生态系统的变化规律,模拟和预测生态系统碳水过程的发展状况,从而为应对全球气候变化提供新的依据。为了更好地掌握生态系统水分利用效率研究现状以及其对温度、CO2等关键气候因子的响应情况,本文总结了陆地生态系统水分利用效率对气候变化响应的最新研究进展。首先介绍了相关的定义并归纳了两种不同计算方式的差异和特点;接着重点总结了陆地生态系统水分利用效率对大气温度、CO2、水分、干旱以及太阳辐射等影响因素的响应;最后文章总结了目前3个相关的研究态势,主要包括:(1)长时间序列水分利用效率与气候要素的关系研究;(2)土地利用/覆被变化对水分利用效率的影响及其对气候的反馈研究;(3)多尺度水分利用效率综合研究。本研究可为深入研究生态系统过程对气候变化的响应提供参考。     

Second generation bioenergy crops and climate change: a review of the effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 and drought on water use and the implications for yield

Second-generation, dedicated lignocellulosic crops for bioenergy are being hailed as the sustainable alternative to food crops for the generation of liquid transport fuels, contributing to climate change mitigation and increased energy security. Across temperate regions they include tree species grown as short rotation coppice and intensive forestry (e.g. Populus and Salix species) and C₄ grasses such as miscanthus and switchgrass. For bioenergy crops it is paramount that high energy yields are maintained in order to drive the industry to an economic threshold where it has competitive advantage over conventional fossil fuel alternatives. Therefore, in the face of increased planting of these species, globally, there is a pressing need for insight into their responses to predicted changes in climate to ensure these crops are 'climate proofed' in breeding and improvement programmes. In this review, we investigate the physiological responses of bioenergy crops to rising atmospheric CO₂ ([Ca]) and drought, with particular emphasis on the C₃ Salicaceae trees and C₄ grasses. We show that while crop yield is predicted to rise by up to 40% in elevated [Ca], this is tempered by the effects of water deficit. In response to elevated [Ca] stomatal conductance and evapotranspiration decline and higher leaf–water potentials are observed. However, whole-plant responses to [Ca] are often of lower magnitude and may even be positive (increased water use in elevated [Ca]). We conclude that rising [Ca] is likely to improve drought tolerance of bioenergy crop species due to improved plant water use, consequently yields in temperate environments may remain high in future climate scenarios.     

Experimental soil warming effects on CO2 and CH4 flux from a low elevation spruce–fir forest soil in Maine, USA

The effect of soil warming on CO₂ and CH₄ flux from a spruce–fir forest soil was evaluated at the Howland Integrated Forest Study site in Maine, USA from 1993 to 1995. Elevated soil temperatures (～5 °C) were maintained during the snow-free season (May – November) in replicated 15 × 15-m plots using electric cables buried 1–2 cm below the soil surface; replicated unheated plots served as the control. CO₂ evolution from the soil surface and soil air CO₂ concentrations both showed clear seasonal trends and significant (P < 0.0001) positive exponential relationships with soil temperature. Soil warming caused a 25–40% increase in CO₂ flux from the heated plots compared to the controls. No significant differences were observed between heated and control plot soil air CO₂ concentrations which we attribute to rapid equilibration with the atmosphere in the O horizon and minimal treatment effects in the B horizon. Methane fluxes were highly variable and showed no consistent trends with treatment.     

不同土壤水分条件下硅对紫花苜蓿水分利用效率及产量构成要素的影响

硅是地壳中含量仅次于氧的元素,植物不可能在无硅的环境中生长.通过盆栽试验研究了不同土壤水分条件下硅对紫花苜蓿(Medicago sativa)水分利用效率及产量构成要素的影响.结果表明,在土壤含水量为田间最大持水量的35%和80%的条件下,硅对紫花苜蓿水分利用效率和生物量没有显著影响,而在土壤含水量为田间最大持水量的50%和65%的条件下,硅显著提高了紫花苜蓿水分利用效率和生物量(p<0.05),紫花苜蓿水分利用效率的增幅分别为35%和20%,主要途径为降低叶片蒸腾速率;紫花苜蓿生物量增幅分别为41%和14%,主要通过促进分枝和株高生长,而不受单枝生物量的影响.因此硅对紫花苜蓿水分利用效率和生物量的有益作用与其生长环境中的土壤水分条件密切相关.     

土壤含水量与苹果叶片水分利用效率的关系

以盆栽苹果幼树为试材研究了土壤相对含水量与叶片水分利用效率（WUE）的关系,探讨了引起WUE变化的原因,结果表明,土壤相对含水量（SWC）52.0％时WUE最高。SEC从77.2%降至52.0％时,气孔导度下降,并使蒸腾速率（Tr）的于净光合速率（Pn）的降幅而导致WUE升高;SEC从52.0％降至20.1%时,WUE降低的根本原因在于羧化效率下降使Pn大为降低 水后WUE回升,但至复水第7天仍低于对照,土壤渍水当天WUE下降,第3天回升至对照水平,之后随渍水期延长WUE逐渐降低,淹水第6天羧化效率开始下降。     

黄土高原半干旱区气候变暖对胡麻生育和水分利用效率的影响

利用黄土高原半干旱区胡麻生长发育定位观测资料和同期气象观测资料,分析气候变化对胡麻生长发育的影响,以及胡麻水分利用效率与气象条件的关系.结果表明:研究区年降水量呈下降趋势,其气候倾向率为-15.80 mm·(10 a)-1,年降水量存在3 a、6 a的周期变化;年均气温呈上升趋势,其气候倾向率为0.36℃·(10 a)-1;作物生长季干燥指数呈显著上升趋势,其气候倾向率为0.12· (10a)-1,20世纪90年代初至2009年明显趋于干旱化.研究区胡麻全生育期天数为120～150 d,≥0℃积温为1700～2100℃·d,降水量为200～250mm,日照时数为1000～1300h.影响黄土高原半干旱雨养农业区胡麻生长发育的主导气象因子是气温和降水量.气温增高导致胡麻生育前期的营养生长阶段缩短;而气温增高、降水量减少,则导致生殖生长阶段延长,从而使全生育期延长.除出苗期和成熟期外,气温对其余时期的胡麻产量形成均表现为负效应,现蕾期对气温变化十分敏感;除开花期外,其余时段降水量对胡麻产量形成均为正效应,胡麻出苗期对降水量变化十分敏感.胡麻水分利用率与胡麻出苗期气温、日照时数和现蕾-成熟期干燥度呈显著正相关,与胡麻现蕾-成熟期降水量呈显著负相关.研究区5-7月干燥度是影响胡麻水分利用率的关键因子.