Leukotrienes Are Upregulated and Associated with Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 (HTLV-1)-Associated Neuroinflammatory Disease

Leukotrienes (LTs) are lipid mediators involved in several inflammatory disorders. We investigated the LT pathway in human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection by evaluating LT levels in HTLV-1-infected patients classified according to the clinical status as asymptomatic carriers (HACs) and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) patients. Bioactive LTB₄ and CysLTs were both increased in the plasma and in the supernatant of peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures of HTLV-1-infected when compared to non-infected. Interestingly, CysLT concentrations were increased in HAM/TSP patients. Also, the concentration of plasma LTB₄ and LTC₄ positively correlated with the HTLV-1 proviral load in HTLV-1-infected individuals. The gene expression levels of LT receptors were differentially modulated in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells of HTLV-1-infected patients. Analysis of the overall plasma signature of immune mediators demonstrated that LT and chemokine amounts were elevated during HTLV-1 infection. Importantly, in addition to CysLTs, IP-10 was also identified as a biomarker for HAM/TSP activity. These data suggest that LTs are likely to be associated with HTLV-1 infection and HAM/TSP development, suggesting their putative use for clinical monitoring.     

Constitutively Active MAVS Inhibits HIV-1 Replication via Type I Interferon Secretion and Induction of HIV-1 Restriction Factors

Type I interferon is known to inhibit HIV-1 replication through the induction of interferon stimulated genes (ISG), including a number of HIV-1 restriction factors. To better understand interferon-mediated HIV-1 restriction, we constructed a constitutively active form of the RIG-I adapter protein MAVS. Constitutive MAVS was generated by fusion of full length MAVS to a truncated form of the Epstein Barr virus protein LMP1 (ΔLMP1). Supernatant from ΔLMP1-MAVS-transfected 293T cells contained high levels of type I interferons and inhibited HIV replication in both TZM-bl and primary human CD4+ T cells. Supernatant from ΔLMP1-MAVS-transfected 293T cells also inhibited replication of VSV-G pseudotyped single cycle SIV in TZM-bl cells, suggesting restriction was post-entry and common to both HIV and SIV. Gene array analysis of ΔLMP1-MAVS-transfected 293T cells and trans-activated CD4+ T cells showed significant upregulation of ISG, including previously characterized HIV restriction factors Viperin, Tetherin, MxB, and ISG56. Interferon blockade studies implicated interferon-beta in this response. In addition to direct viral inhibition, ΔLMP1-MAVS markedly enhanced secretion of IFN-β and IL-12p70 by dendritic cells and the activation and maturation of dendritic cells. Based on this immunostimulatory activity, an adenoviral vector (Ad5) expressing ΔLMP1-MAVS was tested as a molecular adjuvant in an HIV vaccine mouse model. Ad5-Gag antigen combined with Ad5-ΔLMP1-MAVS enhanced control of vaccinia-gag replication in a mouse challenge model, with 4/5 animals showing undetectable virus following challenge. Overall, ΔLMP1-MAVS is a promising reagent to inhibit HIV-1 replication in infected tissues and enhance vaccine-mediated immune responses, while avoiding toxicity associated with systemic type I interferon administration.     

Wnt5a Exhibits Layer-Specific Expression in Adult Skin,Is Upregulated in Psoriasis,and Synergizes with Type 1 Interferon

Background

Wnt5a is a member of the wingless-type patterning regulators important in pre-natal development. The expression and distribution of Wnt5a and its receptors frizzled (fzd) 3 and fzd 5 in adult human skin have not been comprehensively studied to date.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We here show that Wnt5a, fzd3, fzd5, as well as fzd6 are restricted to specific layers in normal epidermis, analogous to their zonal distribution in hair follicles, suggesting a role in adult skin differentiation. In line, Wnt5a and fzd5 are both overexpressed and re-distributed in the epidermis of psoriasis which involves disturbed keratinocyte differentiation. Functionally, Wnt5a lowers the concentration of IFN required to induce target genes, and increases the magnitude of IFN target gene induction, suggesting a molecular mechanism underlying IFN hypersensitivity in psoriasis. Finally, we identify nedd8 and the amyloid precursor APP, previously shown to be upregulated in psoriasis, as targets of synergistic IFNα/Wnt5a induction.

Conclusions/Significance

The present data (i) suggest that Wnt5a regulates epidermal differentiation even in adult skin and (ii) identify synergistic induction of type 1 IFN target genes as a novel mode of Wnt5a action. Targeting Wnt5a in the skin may reduce IFN hypersensitivity and be of therapeutical value.     

HIV-1 Vpu Does Not Degrade Interferon Regulatory Factor 3

It has been reported that HIV-1 Vpu mediates the degradation of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) to avoid innate immune sensing. Here, we show that Vpu does not deplete IRF-3 from transfected cell lines or HIV-1-infected primary cells. Furthermore, the Vpu-dependent suppression of beta interferon expression described in previous studies could be ascribed to inhibition of NF-κB activation. Thus, Vpu suppresses innate immune activation through inhibition of NF-κB rather than degradation of IRF-3.     

USP18 Sensitivity of Peptide Transporters PEPT1 and PEPT2

USP18 (Ubiquitin-like specific protease 18) is an enzyme cleaving ubiquitin from target proteins. USP18 plays a pivotal role in antiviral and antibacterial immune responses. On the other hand, ubiquitination participates in the regulation of several ion channels and transporters. USP18 sensitivity of transporters has, however, never been reported. The present study thus explored, whether USP18 modifies the activity of the peptide transporters PEPT1 and PEPT2, and whether the peptide transporters are sensitive to the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2. To this end, cRNA encoding PEPT1 or PEPT2 was injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes without or with additional injection of cRNA encoding USP18. Electrogenic peptide (glycine-glycine) transport was determined by dual electrode voltage clamp. As a result, in Xenopus laevis oocytes injected with cRNA encoding PEPT1 or PEPT2, but not in oocytes injected with water or with USP18 alone, application of the dipeptide gly-gly (2 mM) was followed by the appearance of an inward current (I_gly-gly). Coexpression of USP18 significantly increased I_gly-gly in both PEPT1 and PEPT2 expressing oocytes. Kinetic analysis revealed that coexpression of USP18 increased maximal I_gly-gly. Conversely, overexpression of the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 decreased I_gly-gly. Coexpression of USP30 similarly increased I_gly-gly in PEPT1 expressing oocytes. In conclusion, USP18 sensitive cellular functions include activity of the peptide transporters PEPT1 and PEPT2.     

Interaction of HIV-1 integrase with DNA repair protein hRad18

We have previously shown that human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) integrase is an unstable protein and a substrate for the N-end rule degradation pathway. This degradation pathway shares its ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, Rad6, with the post-replication/translesion DNA repair pathway. Because DNA repair is thought to play an essential role in HIV-1 integration, we investigated whether other molecules of this DNA repair pathway could interact with integrase. We observed that co-expression of human Rad18 induced the accumulation of an otherwise unstable form of HIV-1 integrase. This accumulation occurred even though hRAD18 possesses a RING finger domain, a structure that is generally associated with E3 ubiquitin ligase function and protein degradation. Evidence for an interaction between integrase and hRad18 was obtained through reciprocal co-immunoprecipitation. Moreover we found that a 162-residue region of hRad18 (amino acids 65-226) was sufficient for both integrase stabilization and interaction. Finally, we observed that HIV-1 integrase co-localized with hRad18 in nuclear structures in a subpopulation of co-transfected cells. Taken together, these findings identify hRad18 as a novel interacting partner of HIV-1 integrase and suggest a role for post-replication/translesion DNA repair in the retroviral integration process.     

Slower Uncoating Is Associated with Impaired Replicative Capability of Simian-Tropic HIV-1

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) productively infects only humans and chimpanzees, but not Old World monkeys, such as rhesus and cynomolgus (CM) monkeys. To establish a monkey model of HIV-1/AIDS, several HIV-1 derivatives have been constructed. We previously generated a simian-tropic HIV-1 that replicates efficiently in CM cells. This virus encodes a capsid protein (CA) with SIVmac239-derived loops between α-helices 4 and 5 (L4/5) and between α-helices 6 and 7 (L6/7), along with the entire vif from SIVmac239 (NL-4/5S6/7SvifS). These SIVmac239-derived sequences were expected to protect the virus from HIV-1 restriction factors in monkey cells. However, the replicative capability of NL-4/5S6/7SvifS in human cells was severely impaired. By long-term cultivation of human CEM-SS cells infected with NL-4/5S6/7SvifS, we succeeded in partially rescuing the impaired replicative capability of the virus in human cells. This adapted virus encoded a G-to-E substitution at the 116^th position of the CA (NL-4/5SG116E6/7SvifS). In the work described here, we explored the mechanism by which the replicative capability of NL-4/5S6/7SvifS was impaired in human cells. Quantitative analysis (by real-time PCR) of viral DNA synthesis from infected cells revealed that NL-4/5S6/7SvifS had a major defect in nuclear entry. Mutations in CA are known to affect viral core stability and result in deleterious effects in HIV-1 infection; therefore, we measured the kinetics of uncoating of these viruses. The uncoating of NL-4/5S6/7SvifS was significantly slower than that of wild type HIV-1 (WT), whereas the uncoating of NL-4/5SG116E6/7SvifS was similar to that of WT. Our results suggested that the lower replicative capability of NL-4/5S6/7SvifS in human cells was, at least in part, due to the slower uncoating of this virus.     

Neutron Reflectometry and Molecular Simulations Demonstrate HIV-1 Nef Homodimer Formation on Model Lipid Bilayers

The HIV-1 Nef protein plays a critical role in viral infectivity, high-titer replication in vivo, and immune escape of HIV-infected cells. Nef lacks intrinsic biochemical activity, functioning instead through interactions with diverse host cell signaling proteins and intracellular trafficking pathways. Previous studies have established an essential role for Nef homodimer formation at the plasma membrane for most if not all its functions. Here we combined neutron reflectometry of full-length myristoylated Nef bound to model lipid bilayers with molecular simulations based on previous X-ray crystal structures of Nef homodimers. This integrated approach provides direct evidence that Nef associates with the membrane as a homodimer with its structured core region displaced from the membrane for partner protein engagement. Parallel studies of a dimerization-defective mutant, Nef-L112D, demonstrate that the helical dimerization interface present in previous crystal structures stabilizes the membrane-bound dimer. X-ray crystallography of the Nef-L112D mutant in complex with the SH3 domain of the Nef-associated host cell kinase Hck revealed a monomeric 1:1 complex instead of the 2:2 dimer complex formed with wild-type Nef. Importantly, the crystal structure of the Nef-L112D core and SH3 interface are virtually identical to the wild-type complex, indicating that this mutation does not affect the overall Nef fold. These findings support the intrinsic capacity of Nef to homodimerize at lipid bilayers using structural features present in X-ray crystal structures of dimeric complexes.     

18B1: An Axon-Specific Antigen Associated with Many Proteins

We describe an antigen, 18B1, defined by a monoclonal antibody. Immunoperoxidase staining of brain sections shows that 18B1 is selectively associated with neurofilament-rich axons. Antibody staining of sodium dodecyl sulphate-gel blots, on the other hand, shows that 18B1 is associated with a large number of proteins, none of which are structural components of brain neurofilaments. The antigen is sensitive to a variety of proteases but is not degraded by various glycosidases, suggesting that 18B1 is probably an amino acid sequence. Its association with neurofilament-rich axons together with its absence from neurofilaments themselves suggests that it may be involved in mediating interactions between neurofilaments and the proteins that bear it.     

Outcomes of Renal Transplantation in HIV-1 Associated Nephropathy

Introduction

Several studies have demonstrated that renal transplantation in HIV positive patients is both safe and effective. However, none of these studies have specifically examined outcomes in patients with HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN).

Methods

Medical records of all HIV-infected patients who underwent kidney transplantation at Johns Hopkins Hospital between September 2006 and January 2014 were reviewed. Data was collected to examine baseline characteristics and outcomes of transplant recipients with HIVAN defined pathologically as collapsing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) with tubulo-interstitial disease.

Results and Discussion

During the study period, a total of 16 patients with HIV infection underwent renal transplantation. Of those, 11 patients were identified to have biopsy-proven HIVAN as the primary cause of their end stage renal disease (ESRD) and were included in this study. They were predominantly African American males with a mean age of 47.6 years. Seven (64%) patients developed delayed graft function (DGF), and 6 (54%) patients required post-operative dialysis within one week of transplant. Graft survival rates at 1 and 3 years were 100% and 81%, respectively. Acute rejection rates at 1 and 3 years were 18% and 27%, respectively. During a mean follow up of 3.4 years, one patient died.

Conclusions

Acute rejection rates in HIVAN patients in this study are higher than reported in the general ESRD population, which is similar to findings from prior studies of patients with HIV infection and ESRD of various causes. The high rejection rates appear to have no impact on short or intermediate term graft survival.     

Vaccinia Virus-Mediated Inhibition of Type I Interferon Responses Is a Multifactorial Process Involving the Soluble Type I Interferon Receptor B18 and Intracellular Components

Poxviruses such as virulent vaccinia virus (VACV) strain Western Reserve encode a broad range of immune modulators that interfere with host responses to infection. Upon more than 570 in vitro passages in chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF), chorioallantois VACV Ankara (CVA) accumulated mutations that resulted in highly attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA). MVA infection of mice and of dendritic cells (DC) induced significant type I interferon (IFN) responses, whereas infection with VACV alone or in combination with MVA did not. These results implied that VACV expressed an IFN inhibitor(s) that was functionally deleted in MVA. To further characterize the IFN inhibitor(s), infection experiments were carried out with CVA strains isolated after 152 (CVA152) and 386 CEF passages (CVA386). Interestingly, neither CVA152 nor CVA386 induced IFN-α, whereas the latter variant did induce IFN-β. This pattern suggested a consecutive loss of inhibitors during MVA attenuation. Similar to supernatants of VACV- and CVA152-infected DC cultures, recombinantly expressed soluble IFN decoy receptor B18, which is encoded in the VACV genome, inhibited MVA-induced IFN-α but not IFN-β. In the same direction, a B18R-deficient VACV variant triggered only IFN-α, confirming B18 as the soluble IFN-α inhibitor. Interestingly, VACV infection inhibited IFN responses induced by a multitude of different stimuli, including oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs, poly(I:C), and vesicular stomatitis virus. Collectively, the data presented show that VACV-mediated IFN inhibition is a multistep process involving secreted factors such as B18 plus intracellular components that cooperate to efficiently shut off systemic IFN-α and IFN-β responses.     

Epigenetic Alterations in the Brain Associated with HIV-1 Infection and Methamphetamine Dependence

HIV involvement of the CNS continues to be a significant problem despite successful use of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Drugs of abuse can act in concert with HIV proteins to damage glia and neurons, worsening the neurotoxicity caused by HIV alone. Methamphetamine (METH) is a highly addictive psychostimulant drug, abuse of which has reached epidemic proportions and is associated with high-risk sexual behavior, increased HIV transmission, and development of drug resistance. HIV infection and METH dependence can have synergistic pathological effects, with preferential involvement of frontostriatal circuits. At the molecular level, epigenetic alterations have been reported for both HIV-1 infection and drug abuse, but the neuropathological pathways triggered by their combined effects are less known. We investigated epigenetic changes in the brain associated with HIV and METH. We analyzed postmortem frontal cortex tissue from 27 HIV seropositive individuals, 13 of which had a history of METH dependence, in comparison to 14 cases who never used METH. We detected changes in the expression of DNMT1, at mRNA and protein levels, that resulted in the increase of global DNA methylation. Genome-wide profiling of DNA methylation in a subset of cases, showed differential methylation on genes related to neurodegeneration; dopamine metabolism and transport; and oxidative phosphorylation. We provide evidence for the synergy of HIV and METH dependence on the patterns of DNA methylation on the host brain, which results in a distinctive landscape for the comorbid condition. Importantly, we identified new epigenetic targets that might aid in understanding the aggravated neurodegenerative, cognitive, motor and behavioral symptoms observed in persons living with HIV and addictions.     

Quantitative Trait Loci for CD4:CD8 Lymphocyte Ratio Are Associated with Risk of Type 1 Diabetes and HIV-1 Immune Control

Abnormal expansion or depletion of particular lymphocyte subsets is associated with clinical manifestations such as HIV progression to AIDS and autoimmune disease. We sought to identify genetic predictors of lymphocyte levels and reasoned that these may play a role in immune-related diseases. We tested 2.3 million variants for association with five lymphocyte subsets, measured in 2538 individuals from the general population, including CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, CD56+ natural killer (NK) cells, and the derived measure CD4:CD8 ratio. We identified two regions of strong association. The first was located in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), with multiple SNPs strongly associated with CD4:CD8 ratio (rs2524054, p = 2.1 × 10⁻²⁸). The second region was centered within a cluster of genes from the Schlafen family and was associated with NK cell levels (rs1838149, p = 6.1 × 10⁻¹⁴). The MHC association with CD4:CD8 replicated convincingly (p = 1.4 × 10⁻⁹) in an independent panel of 988 individuals. Conditional analyses indicate that there are two major independent quantitative trait loci (QTL) in the MHC region that regulate CD4:CD8 ratio: one is located in the class I cluster and influences CD8 levels, whereas the second is located in the class II cluster and regulates CD4 levels. Jointly, both QTL explained 8% of the variance in CD4:CD8 ratio. The class I variants are also strongly associated with durable host control of HIV, and class II variants are associated with type-1 diabetes, suggesting that genetic variation at the MHC may predispose one to immune-related diseases partly through disregulation of T cell homeostasis.