Betalains in the era of global agri-food science, technology and nutritional health

Natural pigments from plants are of growing interest as substitutes for synthetic dyes in the food and pharmaceutical industry and they increase their added value if they possess positive effects on health. These pigments can be added as such if they are in the legal authorized lists of additives or can be added as phytochemical-enriched plant extract achieving the original product, which has received it, the new nomenclature of functional food. In this way, we comprise on this review a wide point of view of a group of natural pigments known as betalains. From a chemical point of view, betalains are ammonium conjugates of betalamic acid with cyclo-DOPA (betacyanins, violet) and aminoacids or amines (betaxanthins, orange or yellow), which are compounds present in our diet. Besides and taking into account that one type of betalain, betanin is approved as food colorant (E-162) by the European Union and that enlarges the specific weight of these compounds in the diet, we have evolved an overview from the biosynthesis, technology and promoting production, industrial uses as pigments up to physiological and nutritional biovailability or biological and health-promoting properties of betalains for accessible information to industrials, researchers and consumers.     

Bacterial pigments and their applications

Natural pigments sourced from ores, insects, plants and animals were the colorants used since prehistoric period. Synthetic dyes which took the place of natural pigments in the middle of 19th century still rule the field to the maximum extent in spite of its hazardous effect to humans, animals and environment. As an alternative to synthetic pigments, bacterial pigments due to their better biodegradability and higher compatibility with the environment, offer promising avenues for various applications. The industry is now able to produce some bacterial pigments for applications in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and textiles. Extraction of bacterial pigments in relatively pure and concentrated forms is the main technological challenge. Optimization of fermentation process and the medium components are reported as key strategies for economic recovery of pigments. Research work needs to be carried out to formulate the fermentation media for each bacterial pigment on large scale by using economical and easily available sources for commercial process. Recent advances in synthetic biology, metabolic engineering efforts of bacteria will greatly expand the pigments that could be produced economically in sufficient amounts for industrial application. This review summarizes the current technology status and challenges, economics, novel strategies for production of bacterial pigments and metabolic engineering of bacteria with a focus on applications of bacterial pigments in food industry, pharmaceutical industry, dyeing as well as on other applications.     

Change of Monascus pigment metabolism and secretion in different extractive fermentation process

Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering - Monascus pigments that were generally produced intracellularly from Monascus spp. are important natural colorants in food industry. In this study, change of...     

Dietary carotenoids predict plumage coloration in wild house finches

Carotenoid pigments are a widespread source of ornamental coloration in vertebrates and expression of carotenoid-based colour displays has been shown to serve as an important criterion in female mate choice in birds and fishes. Unlike other integumentary pigments, carotenoids cannot be synthesized; they must be ingested. Carotenoid-based coloration is condition-dependent and has been shown to be affected by both parasites and nutritional condition. A controversial hypothesis is that the expression of carotenoid-based coloration in wild vertebrates is also affected by the amount and types of carotenoid pigments that are ingested. We tested this carotenoid-limitation hypothesis by sampling the gut contents of moulting house finches and comparing the concentration of carotenoid pigments in their gut contents with the colour of growing feathers. We found a positive association: males that ingested food with a higher concentration of carotenoid pigments grew brighter ornamental plumage. We also compared the concentration of carotenoids in the gut contents of males from two subspecies of house finches with small and large patches of carotenoid-based coloration. Consistent with the hypothesis that carotenoid access drives the evolution of carotenoid-based colour displays, males from the population with limited ornamentation had much lower concentrations of carotenoids in their gut contents than males from the population with extensive ornamentation. These observations support the idea that carotenoid intake plays a part in determining the plumage brightness of male house finches.     

爬山虎红色素的大孔树脂吸附和分离及理化性质研究

本文比较了六种不同型号的大孔树脂对爬山虎红色素的吸附能力,筛选其中最佳的HPD600树脂作为爬山虎红色素的吸附和分离的树脂;用甲醇作为洗脱剂,洗脱效果好;研究了食品中几种常见的共存物、几种金属离子、氧化剂、温度及光等对爬山虎红色素稳定性的影响。     

Demetalation of chlorophyll pigments

Natural chlorophylls (Chls) and bacteriochlorophyll (BChls), which are major pigments in photosynthesis, possess a central Mg (or Zn) in their cyclic tetrapyrrole macrocycles. Removal of the central metal atom from chlorophyllous pigments, called pheophytinization, is a biologically important reaction in that it allows production of the primary electron acceptors in photosystem II(-type) reaction centers and is one of the crucial steps in the Chl degradation pathway. Pheophytinization in processed and postharvest foods derived from vegetables and fruits has attracted considerable attention in agricultural and food chemistry from the viewpoints of maintenance of their color level and evaluation by consumers. In this review, we focus on in vivo demetalation reactions and demetalated products of chlorophyllous pigments. In addition, we summarize kinetic studies on in vitro demetalation of natural (B)Chl molecules and their synthetic analogs under acidic conditions.     

茶色素及其药理学功能

茶色素是茶叶多酚类及其衍生物的混合物,主要成分为茶黄素类、茶红纱类。茶色素含有大量的活性酚羟基等活性基因、具有极强的清除自由基和抗氧化作用。近代药理学研究表明,花色素具有防癌抗癌、防紫外线照射、抗氧化、抗动脉粥样硬化、抗龋护齿等多种药理功能。花色素产品的开可广泛用于医药、食品工业。     

Energetic constraints on expression of carotenoid-based plumage coloration

Carotenoid pigments are used by many bird species as feather colorants, creating brilliant yellow, orange, and red plumage displays. Such carotenoid-based plumage coloration has been shown to function as an honest signal that is used in female mate choice. Despite recent interest in carotenoid-based ornamental traits, the basis for individual variation in expression of carotenoid-based plumage coloration remains incompletely understood. I tested the hypothesis that, independent of carotenoid access, food stress during molt would cause reduced expression of carotenoid pigmentation. I fed molting male House Finches Carpodacus mexicanus seed diets supplemented with either the red carotenoid pigment canthaxanthin or the yellow/orange carotenoid pigment β-cryptoxanthin (in the form of tangerine juice). Within each diet treatment, one group of males was given restricted food access and the other group was given unrestricted food access. Carotenoid supplements were placed in water so carotenoid access was controlled independent of food access. The results indicated a strong effect of both carotenoid access and food access on color display. Some males in the β-cryptoxanthin-supplemented group grew red plumage, suggesting that they can metabolically modify yellow pigments into red pigments, but no bird supplemented with β-cryptoxanthin grew plumage as red as birds supplemented with canthaxanthin. Males in the unrestricted food groups grew redder and more intensely pigmented plumage than males in the restricted food groups. These observations provide the best evidence to date of an energetic cost of carotenoid utilization in the generation of colorful plumage.     

Production of water-soluble yellow pigments via high glucose stress fermentation of Monascus ruber CGMCC 10910

Monascus pigments are secondary metabolites of Monascus species and are mainly composed of yellow pigments, orange pigments and red pigments. In this study, a larger proportion of Monascus yellow pigments could be obtained through the selection of the carbon source. Hydrophilic yellow pigments can be largely produced extracellularly by Monascus ruber CGMCC 10910 under conditions of high glucose fermentation with low oxidoreduction potential (ORP). However, keeping high glucose levels later in the culture causes translation or a reduction of yellow pigment. We presume that the mechanism behind this phenomenon may be attributed to the redox level of the culture broth and the high glucose stress reaction of M. ruber CGMCC 10910 during high glucose fermentation. These yellow pigments were produced via high glucose bio-fermentation without citrinin. Therefore, these pigments can act as natural pigments for applications as food additives.

     

我国植物食用色素资源开发利用评价

古代人们使用的着色剂都是天然产品,除少数矿物颜料外,主要是植物源色素。我国古代就有以红曲米作为着色剂利用的习惯;在高等植物方面,生产蓝色、黄色、绿色的颜料的高等植物种类不少,大多沿用至今。自19世纪中叶以后,人工合成色素以着色牢固、鲜艳、成本低廉等特点,迅速占领了印染、食品等许多行业,但20世纪60年代以后,许多研究表明,一般合成色素都有程度不等的毒性,特别是化学结构含偶氮型的色素有可能在人体内成为致癌物。同时,在色素合成的过程中,还有可能污染有重金属及其他有害物质。因此,合成色素越来越使人们感到不安全。从20世纪50年代的100多种人工合成色素用于食品着色,到20世纪末,已有60~70余种被禁用了,而植物食用色素在食品行业中成为主要着色剂。近年来又涌现出多种有价值的高等植物源色素,我们选择其主要一些植物种类做些介绍,供有关方面参考。     

广西壮族传统利用的食用色素植物

广西壮族自治区位于我国南疆,属亚热带区域,地形地貌复杂多样,植物资源极为丰富,有高等植物约     

Marine natural pigments as potential sources for therapeutic applications

In recent years, marine natural pigments have emerged as a powerful alternative in the various fields of food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries because of their excellent biocompatibility, bioavailability, safety, and stability. Marine organisms are recognized as a rich source of natural pigments such as chlorophylls, carotenoids, and phycobiliproteins. Numerous studies have shown that marine natural pigments have considerable medicinal potential and promising applications in human health. In this review, we summarize the marine natural pigments as potential sources for therapeutic applications, including: antioxidant, anticancer, antiangiogenic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory activities, drug delivery, photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), photoacoustic imaging (PAI), and wound healing. Marine natural pigments will offer a better platform for future theranostic applications.     

Isolation and identification of endophytic fungus SX01, a red pigment producer from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ginkgo biloba</Emphasis> L

Fungal pigments are a potential resource as natural food colorant. Endophytic fungus SX01, which is able to produce abundant soluble red pigments, was isolated from the twigs of Ginkgo biloba L. For further research and utilization of this strain and its secondary metabolites, morphological and molecular characteristics of SX01 was identified. Morphological identification which employed light microscope and scanning electron microscope showed that SX01 was a species of genera Penicillium. ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region and 18S rRNA gene were then cloned, and the molecular phylogeny of these two sequences proved that strain SX01 was Penicillium purpurogenum.     

Flesh Color Diversity of Sweet Potato: An Overview of the Composition,Functions, Biosynthesis,and Gene Regulation of the Major Pigments

Sweet potato is a multifunctional root crop and a source of food with many essential nutrients and bioactive compounds. Variations in the flesh color of the diverse sweet potato varieties are attributed to the different phytochemicals and natural pigments they produce. Among them, carotenoids and anthocyanins are the main pigments known for their antioxidant properties which provide a host of health benefits, hence, regarded as a major component of the human diet. In this review, we provide an overview of the major pigments in sweet potato with much emphasis on their biosynthesis, functions, and regulatory control. Moreover, current findings on the molecular mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis and accumulation of carotenoids and anthocyanins in sweet potato are discussed. Insights into the composition, biosynthesis, and regulatory control of these major pigments will further advance the biofortification of sweet potato and provide a reference for breeding carotenoid- and anthocyanin-rich varieties.     

Betalain producing cell cultures ofBeta vulgaris L. var. bikores monogerm (red beet)

Summary The betalains are a class of natural pigments comprising the yellow betaxanthins and the violet betacyanins. Callus lines developed fromBeta vulgaris, L. var. bikores monogerm exhibited cell colors ranging from white/green (nonpigmented) through yellow, orange, red, and violet and were representative of all betalain pigments found in the whole plant. The betalains have gained particular interest from the food industry as potential natural alternatives to synthetic food colorants in use today. Red beet extracts (E162), which contain significant amounts of the betacyanins, are currently used in products such as yogurts and ice creams. We describe here the characteristics of culture growth and betalain production for cell suspensions derived from the orange (predominantly betaxanthin-producing) and violet (betacyanin producing) callus lines. The major factors affecting betalain biosynthesis in both cultured and whole plant tissues are reviewed. Presented in the Session-in-Depth Batch Production and Fermentation at the 1991 World Congress on Cell and Tissue Culture, Anaheim, California, June 16–29, 1991.     

三角梅属植物的生物学研究进展

三角梅属(Bougainvil lea)属于紫茉莉科(Nyctaginaceae), 有14个种。该文综述了三角梅属植物的生物学特性, 展望了该属植物在增进人类健康、丰富精神生活以及保护环境等方面的应用前景。三角梅属植物因其苞片的形态色彩以及植株形态的变化而具有独特的观赏价值。三角梅属植物不仅作为花卉备受关注, 近年来, 有关三角梅其它应用价值的研究使人们对其有了新的认识。从三角梅叶片中分离得到具有类胰岛素功能的松醇(D-pini tol )对替代胰岛素治疗糖尿病以及减轻胰岛素疗法带来的副作用具有重要意义。研究还表明, 三角梅叶片和根中至少含有2种抗病毒蛋白——BAPI和 Bouganin, 它们对于多种植物病毒具有不同程度的抑制作用。这些研究结果对于开发低毒高效的生物农药具有十分积极的意义。三角梅还是研究甜菜色素代谢的重要模式植物之一, 其甜菜色素的种类和含量之丰富为开发安全的天然食用色素开辟了广阔的前景。这些相关研究展示了三角梅作为资源植物的多元价值, 为进一步开发三角梅的观赏、医药、生物农药价值和作为天然食用色素以及发挥环境修复作用提供了充分的科学依据。     

三角梅属植物的生物学研究进展

三角梅属（Bougainvillea）属于紫茉莉科（Nyctaginaceae）,有14个种。该文综述了三角梅属植物的生物学特性,展望了该属植物在增进人类健康、丰富精神生活以及保护环境等方面的应用前景。三角梅属植物因其苞片的形态色彩以及植株形态的变化而具有独特的观赏价值。三角梅属植物不仅作为花卉备受关注,近年来,有关三角梅其它应用价值的研究使人们对其有了新的认识。从三角梅叶片中分离得到具有类胰岛素功能的松醇（D-pinitol）对替代胰岛素治疗糖尿病以及减轻胰岛素疗法带来的副作用具有重要意义。研究还表明,三角梅叶片和根中至少含有2种抗病毒蛋白——BAPI和Bouganin,它们对于多种植物病毒具有不同程度的抑制作用。这些研究结果对于开发低毒高效的生物农药具有十分积极的意义。三角梅还是研究甜菜色素代谢的重要模式植物之一,其甜菜色素的种类和含量之丰富为开发安全的天然食用色素开辟了广阔的前景。这些相关研究展示了三角梅作为资源植物的多元价值,为进一步开发三角梅的观赏、医药、生物农药价值和作为天然食用色素以及发挥环境修复作用提供了充分的科学依据。     

姜黄色素及其提制方法

来源于姜科姜黄属植物姜黄根茎的姜黄是国内外食品行业允许使用的重要天然色素之一,具有重要的开发利用价值。姜黄素的主要提取方法可分为有机溶剂提取法和水提取法;精制方法主要包括专一性溶剂法、酸碱法、酶水解法和柱层析法等。文中对各种方法进行了简要介绍和评述。     

红曲菌的色素与产生菌

介绍了红曲菌所产各种色素及其衍生物的化学结构和产生菌研究进展,以及红曲菌色素作为食品添加剂及防腐功能,活血、调节血脂、降血压及治疗胺血症等临床药效的原理。着重报道了作者筛选出的紫色红曲菌MonascuspurpureusNH4产生红斑素、红曲红素的培养条件,色素的提取及所产色素的理化特性。     

Identification of potentially safe promising fungal cell factories for the production of polyketide natural food colorants using chemotaxonomic rationale

Background  

Colorants derived from natural sources look set to overtake synthetic colorants in market value as manufacturers continue to meet the rising demand for clean label ingredients – particularly in food applications. Many ascomycetous fungi naturally synthesize and secrete pigments and thus provide readily available additional and/or alternative sources of natural colorants that are independent of agro-climatic conditions. With an appropriately selected fungus; using in particular chemotaxonomy as a guide, the fungal natural colorants could be produced in high yields by using the optimized cultivation technology. This approach could secure efficient production of pigments avoiding use of genetic manipulation.