Distribution and conservation status of the mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) in Peru

The mountain tapir Tapirus pinchaque is one of the largest and most threatened mammals of the northern South American Andes. It is distributed in montane forests and paramos mainly above 2000 m, from Colombia to north Peru. The species is categorised as globally Endangered and is mainly threatened by habitat degradation, habitat loss and fragmentation. Although up-to-date information is lacking in Peru on its distribution, population and conservation status, this population could play an important part in the global persistence of the species. We compiled all known recent occurrence records for the species from Peru, as well as data from camera traps with an effort of over 10,000 camera/days between 2016 and 2018. We modelled the tapir’s distribution using remote-sensed vegetation indices, topographic and bioclimatic variables in MaxEnt, followed by post-processing steps to remove unoccupied areas, to produce a current range map for the species in Peru. We overlaid this with spatial information on threats and protected areas. We estimate a range of almost 183,000 ha in Peru, in two main regions, north and south of the Huancabamba river, of which approximately 60% is within protected areas. However, protection gaps still exist, especially in the south of its range. Mining concessions cover 27% of its current range and we estimate 28,000 ha of forest loss within its extent of occurrence between 2001 and 2020. We provide recommendations for its conservation, including priority areas for increased protection, binational initiatives to ensure connectivity with populations in Ecuador and to use the tapir as a flagship species in efforts to protect montane ecosystems for water conservation.     

A three‐dimensional morphometric analysis of upper forelimb morphology in the enigmatic tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) hints at subtle variations in locomotor ecology

Forelimb morphology is an indicator for terrestrial locomotor ecology. The limb morphology of the enigmatic tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) has often been compared to that of basal perissodactyls, despite the lack of quantitative studies comparing forelimb variation in modern tapirs. Here, we present a quantitative assessment of tapir upper forelimb osteology using three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics to test whether the four modern tapir species are monomorphic in their forelimb skeleton. The shape of the upper forelimb bones across four species (T. indicus; T. bairdii; T. terrestris; T. pinchaque) was investigated. Bones were laser scanned to capture surface morphology and 3D landmark analysis was used to quantify shape. Discriminant function analyses were performed to reveal features which could be used for interspecific discrimination. Overall our results show that the appendicular skeleton contains notable interspecific differences. We demonstrate that upper forelimb bones can be used to discriminate between species (>91% accuracy), with the scapula proving the most diagnostic bone (100% accuracy). Features that most successfully discriminate between the four species include the placement of the cranial angle of the scapula, depth of the humeral condyle, and the caudal deflection of the olecranon. Previous studies comparing the limbs of T. indicus and T. terrestris are corroborated by our quantitative findings. Moreover, the mountain tapir T. pinchaque consistently exhibited the greatest divergence in morphology from the other three species. Despite previous studies describing tapirs as functionally mediportal in their locomotor style, we find osteological evidence suggesting a spectrum of locomotor adaptations in the tapirs. We conclude that modern tapir forelimbs are neither monomorphic nor are tapirs as conserved in their locomotor habits as previously described. J. Morphol. 277:1469–1485, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Landscape Structural Complexity of High‐Mountain Polylepis australis Forests: A New Aspect of Restoration Goals

Forest restoration efforts should aim at creating landscapes with a balanced array of forest stands at varying successional stages, thus providing habitat for a wealth of species and multiple ecosystem services. In most high‐mountain ecosystems of South America, long‐term livestock rearing activities that include fires, browsing, and trampling have delayed or stopped forest succession resulting in simplified landscapes. To determine appropriate restoration goals for Polylepis australis mountain forests of Central Argentina, we established 146 plots of 900 m² plots throughout five river basins with different historic livestock stocking rates. In each plot, we measured tree heights, canopy cover, estimated age of oldest tree, volume of standing and fallen dead wood, fern cover, and abundance of shade tolerant Maytenus boaria trees. K‐means cluster analysis using tree heights and canopy cover as classificatory variables yielded four biologically meaningful clusters. Clusters 1, 2, 3, and 4 comprising 68, 10, 13, and 9% of the plots, respectively, showed increasing amounts of standing and fallen dead wood, fern cover, and abundance of shade tolerant M. boaria trees. Plots in clusters 1 and 2 were proportionally more abundant in basins with high human impact and at the altitudinal extremes of P. australis distribution, whereas plots in clusters 3 and 4 were relatively more abundant in well‐preserved basins and at the optimum of their altitudinal distribution. We interpret clusters 1, 2, 3, and 4 as degraded, regenerating, young, and mature forests, respectively. Restoration goals should focus on attaining an even distribution of forest types similar to that found in our best‐preserved basins.     

Clearance and fragmentation of tropical rain forest in Xishuangbanna, SW, China

Xishuangbanna, situated in the northern margin of the tropical zone in Southeast Asia, maintains large areas of tropical rain forest and contains rich biodiversity. However, tropical rain forests are being rapidly destroyed in this region. This paper analyzed spatial and temporal changes of forest cover and the patterns of forests fragmentation in Xishuangbanna by comparing classified satellite images from 1976, 1988 and 2003 using GIS analyses. The patterns of fragmentation and the effects of edge width were examined using selected landscape indices. The results show that forest cover declined from 69% in 1976 to less than 50% in 2003, the number of forests fragments increased from 6,096 to 8,324, and the mean patch size declined from 217 to 115 ha. It was found that fragment size distribution was strongly skewed towards small values, and fragment size and internal habitat differ strongly among forest types: less fragmented in subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest, but severe in forests that are suitable for agriculture (such as tropical seasonal rain forest and mountain rain forest). Due to fragmentation, the edge width was smaller in 2003 than that in 1976 when the total area of edge habitat exceeded core habitat in different forest types. The core area of tropical seasonal rain forest was smallest among main forest types at any edge width. Fragmentation was severe within 12.5-km buffers around roads. The current forest cover within reserves in Xishuangbanna was comparatively large and less fragmented. However, the tropical rain forest has been degraded inside reserves. For conservation purposes, the approaches to establish forest fragments networks by corridors and stepping stone fragments are proposed. The conservation efforts should be directed first toward the conservation of remaining tropical rain forests.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the perissodactylan family Tapiridae using mitochondrial cytochromec oxidase (COII) sequences

The four extant members of the family Tapiridae have a disjunct, relictual distribution, with three species being Neotropical (Tapirus bairdii, T. terrestris, andT. pinchaque) and one found in Southeast Asia (T. indicus). Little recent work on tapir systematics have appeared, and no molecular studies of this group have been published. A phylogenetic analysis was undertaken using sequences of the mitochondrial cytochromec oxidase subunit II gene (COII) from representatives of the four species of tapirs, as well as a representative outgroup,Equus caballus. Analyses of the COII sequences indicate a close relationship between the two South American species of tapirs,T. terrestris andT. pinchaque, and estimates of divergence dates using rates of COII evolution are compatible with migration of a single tapir lineage into South America following the emergence of the isthmus of Panama, about 3 million years bp. Various methods of analysis, including maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and neighbor-joining, provided poorer resolution of other tapir relationship. The COII data suggest that three distinct tapir mitochondrial lineages, a South American (represented byT. terrestris andT. pinchaque), a Central American (represented byT. bairdii), and an Asian (represented byT. indicus) diverged relatively rapidly, 20–30 million years bp. Another goal of this study was to calibrate the rate of COII evolution in a eutherian mammal group which has a good fossil record, such as perissodactyls, to estimate accurately the rate of COII evolution in a nonprimate mammalian group. The rate of COII evolution in equids and tapirs has been relatively constant and, using corrected distances, calibrated to be approximately 0.22% lineage/million years. This rate is three-to fourfold lower than that of hominoid primates.     

Temporal patterns of land-use change and carbon storage in China and tropical Asia

Evaluating the annual sources and sinks of carbon from land-use change helps con-strain other terms in the global carbon cycle and may help countries choose how to comply with commitments for reduced emissions. This paper presents the results of recent analyses ofland-use change in China and tropical Asia. The original forest areas are estimated to have cov-ered 546×10~6 ha in tropical Asia and 425×10~6 ha in China. By 1850, 44% of China's forests had been cleared, and another 27% was lost between 1850 and 1980, leaving China with 13% forestcover (29% of the initial forest area). Tropical Asia is estimated to have lost 26% of its initial forestcover before 1850 and another 33% after 1850. The annual emissions of carbon from the two regions re-flect the different histories over the last 150 years, with China's emissions peaking in thelate 1950s (at 0.2-0.5 Pg C·a~(-1)) and tropical Asia's emissions peaking in 1990s (at 1.0 Pg C·a~(-1)). Despite the fact that most deforestation has been for new agricultural land, the majority ofthe lands cleared from forests in China are no longer croplands, but fallow or degraded shrublands.Unlike croplands, the origins of these other lands are poorly documented, and thus add consider-able uncertainty to estimates of flux before the 1980s. Nevertheless, carbon emissions from China seem to have decreased since the 1960s to nearly zero at present. In contrast, emissions of car-bon from tropical Asia were higher in the 1990s than that at any time in the past.     

Temporal patterns of land-use change and carbon storage in China and tropical Asia

Evaluating the annual sources and sinks of carbon from land-use changehelps constrain other terms in the global carbon cycle and may help countries choose how to comply with commitments for reduced emissions. This paper presents the results of recent analyses of land-use change in China and tropical Asia. The original forest areas are estimated to have covered 546×106 ha in tropical Asia and 425×106 ha in China. By 1850, 44% of China's forests had been cleared, and another 27% was lost between 1850 and 1980, leaving China with 13% forest cover (29% of the initial forest area). Tropical Asia is estimated to have lost 26%of its initial forest cover before 1850 and another 33% after 1850. The annual emissions of carbon from the two regions reflect the different histories over the last 150 years, with China's emissions peaking in the late 1950s (at 0.2-0.5 Pg C@a-1) and tropical Asia's emissions peaking in 1990s (at 1.0 Pg C@a-1). Despite the fact that most deforestation has been for new agricultural land, the majority of the lands cleared from forests in China are no longer croplands, but fallow or degraded shrublands. Unlike croplands, the origins of these other lands are poorly documented, and thus add considerable uncertainty to estimates of flux before the 1980s. Nevertheless, carbon emissions from China seem to have decreased since the 1960s to nearly zero at present. In contrast, emissions of carbon from tropical Asia were higher in the 1990s than that at any time in the past.     

Efectos de la Extracción de Maderas sobre la Diversidad de Mamiferos Pequeños en Bosques de Tierras Bajas de la Guayana Venezolana1

The responses of small mammal communities to forest disturbance by logging were evaluated. The study area was located in the Imataca Forest Reserve (Venezuelan Guayana Region), where vegetation was predominantly lowland rain forest. Field analyses were based on a comparative inventory of species inhabiting primary forests and areas disturbed by selective logging. The taxonomic groups used as indicators of die ecological impact of logging belonged to the orders Didelphimorphia, Chiroptera, and Rodentia (families Sciuridae, Muridae, and Echimyidae). The following sampling methods were used: (1) mist nets; (2) traps in 2.4 ha grids (each with 120 stations: 60 at ground level and 60 in trees); and (3) diurnal and nocturnal sight surveys. Total sampling effort consisted of 1904 net‐hours, 10,320 trap‐nights, and 567 h of direct observations. At least 83 mammalian species inhabited die evaluated forests (74.7 percent corresponding to Chiroptera), of which 15.3 percent were restricted to primary forest. In logged areas, small mammal communities were characterized by: (1) higher abundances of individuals; (2) lower proportions of carnivorous and gleaning insectivorous bats; (3) increases in the relative abundance of frugivorous bat species that eat the fruits of colonizing plants; (4) higher proportions of aerial insectivores (Molossidae) at die lowest levels of die forest; (5) simplification in trophic structure of non‐volant species, widi semiarboreal predator‐omnivores being die dominant guild (followed by terrestrial frugivore‐omnivores); and (6) reduction in the relative abundance of mainly canopy‐associated species. These results are explained by: (1) lower availability of key resources associated with primary forest (e.g., roosts in hollow trunks of mature trees, canopy fruits, and tree‐crown continuity); (2) higher relative abundance of some food resources, such as terrestrial invertebrates and saprophytic plants, principally in areas where primary production is limited by low‐fertility soils; (3) increase of roosting sites under fallen trunks; (4) modification of microclimatic conditions at die understory level as a consequence of a greater incident sunlight after canopy opening; and (5) increase in density of early successional plants. The implications of these results to the conservation of biodiversity in forests managed for timber extraction in die Venezuelan Guayana Region are discussed.     

Stable Isotope Ecology of Extant Tapirs from the Americas

Understanding the ecology of modern and ancient forests can help clarify the evolution of forest dwelling mammals. It is first necessary, however, to elucidate the source and extent of stable isotope variation in forest taxa. Tapirs are of particular interest because they are model organisms for identifying forest environments due to their highly conservative diet and habitat preferences. Here, stable carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of extant tapirs are quantified to test hypotheses regarding ontogenetic diet shifts, stable isotope variation at the population level, and relationships between stable isotopes and climatic variables. A population of extant tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) demonstrates low δ¹³C variation (～2–3‰) and increased δ¹³C values in late erupting teeth, indicating that juveniles consume ¹³C deplete milk and/or browse in denser forests. Disparate δ¹⁸O values of late erupting teeth are instead reflecting seasonal variation. Extant tapir (T. bairdii, Tapirus pinchaque, Tapirus terrestris) δ¹⁸O values are constrained by climatic and geographic variables. Most notably, δ¹⁸O values of T. bairdii decrease with decreasing precipitation frequency. Tapirus terrestris is typically present in areas with greater precipitation than T. bairdii and δ¹⁸O values instead positively correlate with δ¹³C values. These data indicate that tapirs in wetter areas are getting a larger proportion of their water from leaves experiencing less evaporation in denser canopies, while T. bairdii is interpreted to increase its consumption of water via drinking when present in drier areas. An understanding of extant tapir stable isotope ecology improves ecological interpretations of these elusive mammals both today and in the past. Abstract in Spanish is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

On the forest cover–water yield debate: from demand‐ to supply‐side thinking

Several major articles from the past decade and beyond conclude the impact of reforestation or afforestation on water yield is negative: additional forest cover will reduce and removing forests will raise downstream water availability. A second group of authors argue the opposite: planting additional forests should raise downstream water availability and intensify the hydrologic cycle. Obtaining supporting evidence for this second group of authors has been more difficult due to the larger scales at which the positive effects of forests on the water cycle may be seen. We argue that forest cover is inextricably linked to precipitation. Forest‐driven evapotranspiration removed from a particular catchment contributes to the availability of atmospheric moisture vapor and its cross‐continental transport, raising the likelihood of precipitation events and increasing water yield, in particular in continental interiors more distant from oceans. Seasonal relationships heighten the importance of this phenomenon. We review the arguments from different scales and perspectives. This clarifies the generally beneficial relationship between forest cover and the intensity of the hydrologic cycle. While evidence supports both sides of the argument – trees can reduce runoff at the small catchment scale – at larger scales, trees are more clearly linked to increased precipitation and water availability. Progressive deforestation, land conversion from forest to agriculture and urbanization have potentially negative consequences for global precipitation, prompting us to think of forest ecosystems as global public goods. Policy‐making attempts to measure product water footprints, estimate the value of ecosystem services, promote afforestation, develop drought mitigation strategies and otherwise manage land use must consider the linkage of forests to the supply of precipitation.     

Response of herbaceous layer species to canopy and soil variables in a central Appalachian hardwood forest ecosystem

Previous work has suggested that excess nitrogen (N) alters the degree to which forest canopy versus soil variables influence forest herb communities. This study tested the hypothesis that excess N would shift this influence on individual herb species from soil N availability to stand structural variables that determine light availability to the forest floor. Two watersheds at the Fernow Experimental Forest, West Virginia, USA were used: WS4 and WS3 as untreated reference and treatment watersheds, respectively. WS3 receives 35 kg N/ha/year via aerial application. Herb cover and composition was measured in seven permanent plots/WS from 1991, currently on-going. In 2011, soil moisture and N availability were measured in each plot, along with several variables of canopy structure. Backwards stepwise regression was used to determine relationships between herb cover/individual species and soil/canopy measurements. Herb cover varied spatially with soil resources on WS4, whereas cover varied spatially with canopy structure on WS3. Although results for total herb layer cover supported this hypothesis, results for individual herb species rejected it. This contrast was especially evident for Rubus allegheniensis (blackberry), a nitrophilic species which increased with increasing soil N on both watersheds, but was not correlated with canopy structure on reference WS4, while being correlated with canopy structure on N-treated WS3. Excess N from atmospheric deposition has been shown to decrease plant biodiversity of impacted forests, especially in its effects on herbaceous layer communities. This work demonstrates that one of the mechanisms of such response is in N-mediated changes in the response of herb communities to soil resources and light availability.

     

The role of landscape configuration in plant composition of floodplain forests across different physiographic areas

Questions: What is the relative importance of landscape variables compared to habitat quality variables in determining species composition in floodplain forests across different physiographic areas? How do species composition and species traits relate to effects of particular landscape variables? Do lowland and mountain areas differ in effects of landscape variables on species composition? Location: Southern Czech Republic. Methods: A total of 240 vegetation relevés of floodplain forests with measured site conditions were recorded across six physiographic areas. I tested how physiographic area, habitat quality variables and landscape variables such as current land‐cover categories, forest continuity, forest size and urbanization influenced plant species composition. I also compared how mountain and lowland areas differ in terms of the relative importance of these variables. To determine how landscape configuration affects the distribution of species traits, relationships of traits and species affinity with landscape variables were tested. Results: Among landscape variables, forest continuity, landscape forest cover and distance to nearest settlement altered the vegetation. These variables also influenced the distributions of species traits, i.e. life forms, life strategies, affinity to forest, dispersal modes, seed characteristics, flooding tolerance and Ellenberg indicator values for nitrogen, light, moisture and soil reaction. Nevertheless, physiographic area and habitat quality variables explained more variation in species composition. Landscape variables were more important in lowland areas. Forest continuity affected species composition only in lowlands. Conclusions: Although habitat quality and physiographic area explained more vegetation variability, landscape configuration was also a key factor influencing species composition and distribution of species traits. However, the results are dependent on forest geographical location, with lowland forests being more influenced by landscape variables compared to mountain forests.     

Complete plastome sequences of Equisetum arvense and Isoetes flaccida: implications for phylogeny and plastid genome evolution of early land plant lineages

Background

Understanding the forces that shaped Neotropical diversity is central issue to explain tropical biodiversity and inform conservation action; yet few studies have examined large, widespread species. Lowland tapir (Tapirus terrrestris, Perissodactyla, Tapiridae) is the largest Neotropical herbivore whose ancestors arrived in South America during the Great American Biotic Interchange. A Pleistocene diversification is inferred for the genus Tapirus from the fossil record, but only two species survived the Pleistocene megafauna extinction. Here, we investigate the history of lowland tapir as revealed by variation at the mitochondrial gene Cytochrome b, compare it to the fossil data, and explore mechanisms that could have shaped the observed structure of current populations.

Results

Separate methodological approaches found mutually exclusive divergence times for lowland tapir, either in the late or in the early Pleistocene, although a late Pleistocene divergence is more in tune with the fossil record. Bayesian analysis favored mountain tapir (T. pinchaque) paraphyly in relation to lowland tapir over reciprocal monophyly, corroborating the inferences from the fossil data these species are sister taxa. A coalescent-based analysis rejected a null hypothesis of allopatric divergence, suggesting a complex history. Based on the geographic distribution of haplotypes we propose (i) a central role for western Amazonia in tapir diversification, with a key role of the ecological gradient along the transition between Andean subcloud forests and Amazon lowland forest, and (ii) that the Amazon river acted as an barrier to gene flow. Finally, the branching patterns and estimates based on nucleotide diversity indicate a population expansion after the Last Glacial Maximum.

Conclusions

This study is the first examining lowland tapir phylogeography. Climatic events at the end of the Pleistocene, parapatric speciation, divergence along the Andean foothill, and role of the Amazon river, have similarly shaped the history of other taxa. Nevertheless further work with additional samples and loci is needed to improve our initial assessment. From a conservation perspective, we did not find a correspondence between genetic structure in lowland tapir and ecogeographic regions proposed to define conservation priorities in the Neotropics. This discrepancy sheds doubt into this scheme's ability to generate effective conservation planning for vagile species.     

Quercus and Pinus cover are determined by landscape structure and dynamics in peri-urban Mediterranean forest patches

Successional dynamics in Mediterranean forests have been modulated by anthropogenic disturbances during thousands of years, especially in areas densely populated since ancient times. Our objective is to determine whether pine tree cover (early-successional species) and oak tree cover (late-successional species), used as a surrogate of successional stage of peri-urban fragmented forests in the Vallès lowlands (Catalonia, NE, Spain), are primarily determined by (1) climate and topography; (2) anthropogenic disturbances; (3) patch structure; or (4) patch dynamics from 1956 to 1993. Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. tree cover were separately recorded on 252 randomly selected plots of 100 m², within forest patches ranging in size from 0.25 to 218 ha. Multiple linear regressions indicated that forest patch history is the most important variable determining oak and pine tree cover: new forest patches showed higher pine and lower oak tree cover than recently split patches (i.e. those that became fragmented from large forest areas after 1956). Patches already existing as such in 1956 (pre-existent patches) showed higher pine cover than recently split patches. Oak cover increased and pine cover decreased with increasing forest connectivity of the patch. Finally, highly frequented forests were related to high cover of pines. Climatic and topographic variables were not significant. We conclude that pine and oak cover in these peri-urban forests are mainly determined by recent patch dynamics, but also by the spatial pattern of patches. However, human-induced disturbance can modulate this as there is some evidence for pine being associated with a high human frequentation.     

赤松次生林天然更新幼树数量通径分析

用常规方法对山东半岛赤松次生林天然更新状况进行了为期4年的观测研究。运用电子计算机对原始数据进行了通径分析程序运算。结果表明,林分郁闭度、灌草层总盖度对赤松更新幼树数量的影响最大,二者都以直接效应为主,是影响赤松次生林天然更新最重要的因子。坡度与上层厚度代表地形和土壤条件。对赤松更新幼树的数量的影响小于郁闭度和群落总盖度,二者主要通过影响其它因子而间接作用于赤松次生林的天然更新。赤松林木密度与赤松更新幼树数量的关系不密切,对赤松次生林天然更新的作用较小。赤松林地一般无裸岩,故裸岩面积所占百分比对赤松幼树数量的作用不显著。通径分析能够表明变量之间作用的因果关系,更深刻地揭示变量之间的关系。     

The effects of disturbance on the population structure and regeneration potential of five dominant woody species – in Hugumburda‐Gratkhassu National Forest Priority Area,North‐eastern Ethiopia

Vast areas of forests in North‐eastern Ethiopia have been replaced by cropland, shrub land or grazing areas. Thus, information about how vegetation composition and structure varies with disturbance is fundamental to conservation of such areas. This study aimed to investigate the effects of disturbance on the population structure and regeneration potential of five dominant woody species within forest where local communities harvest wood and graze livestock. Vegetation structure and environmental variables were assessed in 50 quadrats (20 m × 20 m). In most of both disturbed and undisturbed treatments, Juniperus procera was the highest contributor to the basal area of the forest, while that of Olinia rochetiana was the lowest. Analysis of population structure showed high density at lower Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) and low density at higher DBH classes. Undisturbed forest treatments had 84% canopy cover, 22 m mean vegetation height and a density of 1320 trees of dominant species and 1024 seedlings/saplings ha^?1. In disturbed habitats, canopy cover (73%), mean vegetation height (18 m) and density of dominant trees and saplings were significantly lower than in undisturbed habitats. Thus, to ensure species, survival and maintain species diversity managed use of the protected area is essential.     

Assessing occupancy and habitat connectivity for Baird’s tapir to establish conservation priorities in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas,Mexico

Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is the largest native mammal that inhabits the Neotropics, and it is enlisted as Endangered by the IUCN Red List. The historic distribution of this species included the area from southern Mexico to northern Colombia. However, its distribution and populations have been reduced drastically during the past 30 years. The main threats for Baird’s tapir are the direct persecution for subsistence hunting, habitat destruction, and habitat fragmentation. In this study, we used camera traps and occupancy models to identify the landscape characteristics that were associated with the occurrence of tapirs in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, which is one of the most important populations of the species in Mexico, with the aim to identify areas with habitat suitability for the species. We used our best occupancy model to generate a resistance matrix to develop a model of habitat connectivity using Circuit Theory. According to the best occupancy model, the most suitable areas for this species were the forested areas located at the highest elevations of the mountain ranges that provided rugged terrain. We identified three critical corridors to allow for the connectivity of tapir populations in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, and one of these corridors provides connectivity between this population and the population in the Ocote Biosphere Reserve. With this approach, we propose a conservation strategy for the species that incorporates a more realistic and detailed scheme of Baird’s tapir occurrence in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas region. Priority actions to conserve tapirs in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas over the long term include ensuring the complete protection of prime habitat for the species, improved connectivity by protecting forest cover, implementation mitigation measures in areas where paved roads interrupt connectivity of populations, and eradicating poaching of the species in the region completely.     

Deforestation Rates (1938–1988) of Tropical Lowland Forests on the Andean Foothills of Colombia1

Deforestation rates were estimated in 270 km² of lowland moist forest on the eastern slope of the Colombian Andes (300–800 m). Deforestation was quantified by determining areas of pasture, secondary growth, and forest in aerial photographs (1:19,000–1:60,000) taken in the 1930s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Mean annual deforestation rate for the 1938–1988 period was 1.5 percent, and ranged from <0.1 percent (1938–1955) to 4.4 percent (1970s–1980s). Between the 1930s and the 1980s, areas covered by pasture and young secondary forest increased from 26–53 percent and from 2–14 percent, respectively. This suggests that, although there are areas with clear signs of forest regeneration, the overall trend is the conversion of mature tropical forests to pastures for cattle ranching.     

Ground vegetation in the Mongolian taiga forest‐steppe ecotone does not offer evidence for the human origin of grasslands

Question: Is the vegetation of meadow and mountain steppes distinct from the ground vegetation of light taiga forests in the transitional zone between these biomes? Location: Western Khentey Mountains, northern Mongolia. Methods: Vegetation was recorded from 100‐m² plots from all dominant types of light taiga forest and dry grassland. Distinctness of ground vegetation was studied with Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA). Results: Ground vegetation in the light taiga was significantly different from the herbal vegetation of meadow and mountain steppes. Clear separation was only absent for the Car ex amgunensis meadow steppes that occur in a narrow strip along the forest edge and are partly shaded by trees. Forest and steppe communities followed a moisture gradient according to the DCA ordination with light taiga forests at the moistest sites and steppe communities at the driest sites. Ulmus pumila open woodlands diverged from this pattern, because of their close spatial and phytosociological relationship to mountain steppes. Conclusions: The present results do not support the assumption that grasslands in Mongolia's transitional zone between forest and steppe would generally resemble the ground vegetation of light taiga forests. This contradicts a published hypothesis stating that the vegetation of meadow and mountain steppes would not clearly differ from ground vegetation of light taiga forests in the forest‐steppe transitional zone of Mongolia.     

Winter habitat selection by wild boar <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sus scrofa</Emphasis> in southeastern Poland

Research was conducted on habitat selection by the wild-boar population in the Carpathian foothills, southeastern Poland. In two forest districts (Bircza and Krasiczyn) with a total area of forests of 47,000 ha, 21 line transects were designated (total length, 284 km). In February 2001, tracks that wild boar left during the day were counted on five subsequent days. Using a car mileage meter and forest maps, the locations of tracks in seven forest types, forest meadows and agricultural fields situated inside the forests were determined. The Bailey’s test was applied to calculate the boars’ preference for each forest type and non-forest areas. Spatial distribution of 284 wild-boar tracks shows that the animals do indeed prefer European beech–hornbeam Fagus silvatica–Carpinus betulus forest and avoid silver fir Abies alba forest. The hypothesis raised is that in the European beech–hornbeam forests, there are foraging areas and bedding sites crucial for the animals.