Mutator转座子及MULE在植物基因与基因组进化中的作用

Mutator（Mu）转座子是植物中已发现的转座最活跃的转座子,其高的转座频率及趋向于单拷贝功能基因转座的特性,使该转座子成为玉米功能基因克隆的主要方法.Mu转座子的同源类似因子广泛存在于被子植物基因组中,而且同一基因组中往往具有多种变异类型.它不仅具有其他DNA转座子在基因和基因组进化中的普遍作用,而且具有能够承载基因组内功能基因和基因片段的载体功能,这种载体Mu转座子（Pack-MuLEs）能够在基因组内移动众多的基因片段,从而对基因和基因组进化产生作用.Mu转座子的同源序列发生在水稻与狗尾草之间的水平转移提供了高等植物核基因水平转移的首个例证.对Mu转座子的了解促进了我们对动态基因组概念的认识.文章对Mutator转座子的发现、转座特征、基因标签应用等的研究进展进行了综述,对Mu转座子家族的同源序列进行了分类,讨论了该转座子在基因组进化中的作用,分析了应加强研究的问题.     

33种鱼类微型反向重复转座元件鉴定

微型反向重复转座元件(MITEs)是一类短的非自主DNA转座子, 其分布的位置会对宿主产生影响。文章使用生物信息学的方法对无颌类、软骨鱼纲、肉鳍鱼纲和辐鳍鱼纲鱼类基因组进行了MITEs预测, 最终在33种鱼类基因组中鉴定出2433个MITEs家族。文章发现鱼类基因组中MITEs含量存在较大差异(0.11%—21.18%), 并且MITEs含量与鱼类基因组大小呈正相关关系。根据末端重复序列(TIRs)和靶位点重复序列(TSDs)的特征将MITEs分为10个超家族, 其中TC1-Mariner超家族的含量最高。MITEs在鱼类基因组中的插入事件主要发生在4百万年前至今, 大多数物种的MITEs在2百万—0.5百万年前发生了爆发式扩增。鱼类基因组中的MITEs多数插入到基因内部或附近, 这些转座子可能在基因的表达调控方面存在重要作用。     

piggyBac转座子在牛基因组的整合位点及特征分析

piggyBac(PB)转座子作为一种遗传工具被广泛应用于多个物种的转基因及插入突变研究, 目前PB转座子在牛中的相关研究还较少。为了获得PB转座子在牛基因组中的整合位点, 总结其转座特征, 文章构建了PB[CMV-EGFP]和pcDNA-PBase二元转座系统, 利用细胞核电转技术共转染牛耳组织成纤维细胞, 经G-418筛选, 获得了稳定转染EGFP的转基因细胞系; 提取细胞基因组DNA, 利用基因组步移技术扩增PB转座子5′ Bac区插入位置的DNA序列; 通过与牛基因组序列进行BLAST比对, 得到PB转座子在牛基因组中的插入位点。文章共获得了8个有效的整合位点, 但仅有5个位点定位到染色体1、2、11和X染色体上。序列分析表明：在牛基因组中, PB转座子可特异性的插入到“TTAA”位置, 并整合到基因间的非调控区; 分析整合位点“TTAA”相邻一侧的5个碱基组成, 发现PB转座子5′端倾向于插入到GC(62.5%)碱基富集区。该研究表明, PB转座子可以在牛基因组中发生转座, 获得的整合位点信息为利用PB转座子在牛上开展遗传学研究提供了理论参考。     

类Tc1转座子研究进展

转座子广泛存在于各种生物基因组中,能在染色体不同位点间转座,并在基因组中大量扩增.转座子的活动能引起生物基因组或基因的重组和变异,加速生物多样性及其进化速率,被视为生物基因组进化的内在驱动.转座子分2类：反转座子和DNA转座子.类Tc1转座子是DNA转座子超级家族中种类最多、分布最广的一类.本文简要概述了类Tc1转座子的结构特征,及其扩增、转座和迸发的机制,并展望了其应用和研究方向.     

转座子Sleeping Beauty和PiggyBac

近10年来,得益于转座子Sleeping Beauty(SB)和PiggyBac(PB)的发现和完善,转座子作为一种遗传工程工具在脊椎动物的基因遗传研究中得到广泛应用.SB和PB宿主范围极其广泛,从单细胞生物到哺乳动物都能够发挥作用.转座过程需要转座序列和转座酶的存在,类似于"剪切"、"粘贴"的方式.转座子载体系统转座时可携带一段外源DNA序列,利用这一特性可以用于实现目的基因的转移,现已广泛用于转基因动物、基因功能研究、基因治疗等领域.当转座系统与基因捕获技术相结合,不仅可研究插入突变基因的功能,还能通过所携带的报告基因获得捕获基因的表达图谱.作为非病毒载体的SB和PB转座系统,由于具有高容量、高效率和高安全性等优势,并且PB在转座后不留任何足迹,不会造成遗传物质的不可预测改变,在动物基因工程以及基因治疗方面具有诱人的前景.     

水稻转座子研究进展

转座子是植物基因组的重要组成部分,对于研究植物基因组进化等具有重要意义。随着水稻全基因组测序计划的开展和完成,水稻转座子研究取得了极大进展,目前已经在水稻基因组中发现了几乎所有类型的转座子,约占水稻基因组的35%。在正常情况下,大多数水稻转座子不具有转座活性,但是在特定的条件下（如组织培养或辐射等）,水稻基因组中沉默的转座子可以被激活,从而可能导致插入突变并影响基因的表达。在水稻中已鉴定出6个有活性的转座子,其中Tos17已被应用到水稻功能基因组研究中。转座子序列的新的分子标记转座子展示（transposon display,TD）现已被开发,并在水稻遗传作图和遗传分化研究中得到应用。     

水稻转座子研究进展

转座子是植物基因组的重要组成部分, 对于研究植物基因组进化等具有重要意义。随着水稻全基因组测序计划的开展和完成, 水稻转座子研究取得了极大进展, 目前已经在水稻基因组中发现了几乎所有类型的转座子, 约占水稻基因组的35%。在正常情况下, 大多数水稻转座子不具有转座活性, 但是在特定的条件下(如组织培养或辐射等), 水稻基因组中沉默的转座子可以被激活, 从而可能导致插入突变并影响基因的表达。在水稻中已鉴定出6个有活性的转座子, 其中Tos17已被应用到水稻功能基因组研究中。转座子序列的新的分子标记转座子展示(transposon display, TD)现已被开发, 并在水稻遗传作图和遗传分化研究中得到应用     

高等植物转座子的超家族及其应用(综述)

转座子是广泛存在于高等植物基因组中的可移动的DNA分子。文中主要介绍高等植物的各种转座子超家族,包括LTR类反转录转座子、hAT、CACTA因子、Mutator和MULEs、Tc1/mariner、微小反向重复转座子MITEs等;另外还阐述了植物转座子标签体系和筛选方法,以及转座子在生物多样性与遗传连锁分析、植物基因组学研究与植物性状改良方面中的应用。     

反转录转座子标记及在作物遗传育种中的应用

反转录转座子通过RNA中间体进行反转录而转座,广泛分布于各种植物基因组中,拷贝数多,异质性高,在种内和种间表现出较高的序列差异性和丰富的插入多态性。针对这些特点,开发出了几种基于反转录转座子的分子标记,如SSAP、RIVPI、RAP、REMAP和RBIP等。由于反转录转座子标记能揭示出丰富的多态性,因而在遗传多样性和系谱研究、遗传连锁图谱构建及性状基因定位等方面得到了应用。随着分离技术的不断改进,获取序列信息更加容易,反转录转座子作为分子标记用于作物遗传育种将具有广阔前景。     

植物转座子与基因表达调控

植物转座子是植物基因组中可移动的DNA重复序列,在植物基因组进化、基因表达调控、系统发育和遗传多样性评价方面具有重要作用。综述了植物转座子分类、起源和转座机制以及转座子与宿主基因组间的表观遗传互作,阐述了不同转座子对基因表达调控方式,并对今后研究前景进行了展望,旨为全面了解植物转座子的功能提供参考。     

Detailed Analysis of a Contiguous 22-Mb Region of the Maize Genome

Most of our understanding of plant genome structure and evolution has come from the careful annotation of small (e.g., 100 kb) sequenced genomic regions or from automated annotation of complete genome sequences. Here, we sequenced and carefully annotated a contiguous 22 Mb region of maize chromosome 4 using an improved pseudomolecule for annotation. The sequence segment was comprehensively ordered, oriented, and confirmed using the maize optical map. Nearly 84% of the sequence is composed of transposable elements (TEs) that are mostly nested within each other, of which most families are low-copy. We identified 544 gene models using multiple levels of evidence, as well as five miRNA genes. Gene fragments, many captured by TEs, are prevalent within this region. Elimination of gene redundancy from a tetraploid maize ancestor that originated a few million years ago is responsible in this region for most disruptions of synteny with sorghum and rice. Consistent with other sub-genomic analyses in maize, small RNA mapping showed that many small RNAs match TEs and that most TEs match small RNAs. These results, performed on ∼1% of the maize genome, demonstrate the feasibility of refining the B73 RefGen_v1 genome assembly by incorporating optical map, high-resolution genetic map, and comparative genomic data sets. Such improvements, along with those of gene and repeat annotation, will serve to promote future functional genomic and phylogenomic research in maize and other grasses.     

Sequence similarity of putative transposases links the maize Mutator autonomous element and a group of bacterial insertion sequences.

The Mutator transposable element system of maize is the most active transposable element system characterized in higher plants. While Mutator has been used to generate and tag thousands of new maize mutants, the mechanism and regulation of its transposition are poorly understood. The Mutator autonomous element, MuDR, encodes two proteins: MURA and MURB. We have detected an amino acid sequence motif shared by MURA and the putative transposases of a group of bacterial insertion sequences. Based on this similarity we believe that MURA is the transposase of the Mutator system. In addition we have detected two rice cDNAs in genbank with extensive similarity to MURA. This sequence similarity suggests that a Mutator-like element is present in rice. We believe that Mutator, a group of bacterial insertion sequences, and an uncharacterized rice transposon represent members of a family of transposable elements.     

Mutator Transposon in Maize and MULEs in the Plant Genome

Mutator (Mu) is by far the most mutagenic plant transposon. The high frequency of transposition and the tendency to insert into low copy sequences for such transposon have made it the primary means by which genes are mutagenized in maize (Zea mays L.). Mus like elements (MULEs) are widespread among angiosperms and multiple-diverged functional variants can be present in a single genome. MULEs often capture genetic sequences. These Pack-MuLEs can mobilize thousands of gene fragments, which may have had a significant impact on host genome evolution. There is also evidence that MULEs can move between reproductively isolated species. Here we present an overview of the discovery, features and utility of Mu transposon. Classification of Mu elements and future directions of related research are also discussed. Understanding Mu will help us elucidate the dynamic genome.     

The Mu Transposable Elements of Maize: Evidence for Transposition and Copy Number Regulation during Development

The Mu transposon of maize exists in a highly mutagenic strain called Robertson's Mutator. Plants of this strain contain 10-50 copies of the Mu element, whereas most maize strains and other plants have none. When Mutator plants are crossed to plants of the inbred line 1S2P, which does not have copies of Mu, the progeny plants have approximately the same number of Mu sequences as did their Mutator parent. Approximately one-half of these copies have segregated from their parent and one-half have arisen by transposition and are integrated into new positions in the genome. This maintenance of copy number can be accounted for by an extremely high rate of transposition of the Mu elements (10-15 transpositions per gamete per generation). When Mutator plants are self-pollinated, the progeny double their Mu copy number in the first generation, but maintain a constant number of Mu sequences with subsequent self-pollinations. Transposition of Mu and the events that lead to copy number maintenance occur very late in the development of the germ cells but before fertilization. A larger version of the Mu element transposes but is not necessary for transposition of the Mu sequences. The progeny of crosses with a Mutator plant occasionally lack Mutator activity; these strains retain copies of the Mu element, but these elements no longer transpose.     

家蚕LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定、分类及系统发育分析

转座子是真核生物基因组的重要组成成分。为了研究家蚕Bombyx mori长末端重复序列 (long terminal repeat, LTR)逆转录转座子的分类及进化, 本研究采用de novo预测和同源性搜索相结合的方法, 在家蚕基因组中共鉴定出了38个LTR逆转录转座子家族, 序列长度占整个基因组的0.64%, 远小于先前预测的11.8%, 其中有6个家族为本研究的新发现。38个家族中, 26个家族有表达序列标签 (expression sequence tag, EST)证据, 表明这些家族具有潜在的活性。对有EST证据的6个家族和没有EST证据的5个家族用RT-PCR进行了组织表达谱实验, 结果表明这11个家族在一些组织中有表达, 这进一步证实了这些家族具有转录活性, 基于此我们推测家蚕中大部分的LTR逆转录转座子家族很可能具有潜在活性。对转座子的插入时间进行估计, 结果表明绝大部分元件都是最近1百万年内插入到家蚕基因组中的。我们还比较了黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster、 冈比亚按蚊Anopheles gambiae和家蚕B. mori中Ty3/Gypsy超家族分支的差异, 结果表明不同枝在不同昆虫中有着不同的扩张。家蚕中LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定和系统分析有助于我们理解逆转录转座子在昆虫进化中的作用。     

Macrotransposition and other complex chromosomal restructuring in maize by closely linked transposons in direct orientation

Several observations indicate that compatible ends of separate, yet closely linked, transposable elements (TEs) can interact in alternative transposition reactions. First, pairs of TEs cause chromosome breaks with frequencies inversely related to the intertransposon distance. Second, some combinations of two TEs produce complex rearrangements that often include DNA adjacent to one or both elements. In pairs of TEs in direct orientation, alternative reactions involving the external ends of the two TEs should lead to the transposition of a macrotransposon consisting of both elements plus the intervening chromosomal segment. Such macrotransposons have been hypothesized previously based on deletions, but no macrotransposon insertions have been recovered. To detect macrotransposition, we have analyzed heritable chromosomal rearrangements produced by a chromosome-breaking pair of Ac and Ds elements situated 6.5 kb apart in direct orientation in a part of the maize (Zea mays) genome dispensable for viability. Here, we show that the postulated macrotransposon can excise and reinsert elsewhere in the genome. In addition, this transposon pair produces other complex rearrangements, including deletions, inversions, and reshuffling of the intertransposon segment. Thus, closely linked TE pairs, a common transposition outcome in some superfamilies, are adept at restructuring chromosomes and may have been instrumental in reshaping plant genomes.