Surnames in Texas: a population study through isonymy

To study the isonymy structure of Texas, we analyzed the surname distributions of 3.6 million telephone users registered for the year 1996 in 232 towns distributed in the 7 regions of the state. The number of different surnames was 235,740. Matrices of isonymy distances between towns and between geographic regions were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. We found that isonymy distances between the seven regions showed borderline or no correlation with geographic distance, with r = 0.089 +/- 0.232, r = 0.492 +/- 0.232, and r = 0.337 +/- 0.232 for Lasker's, Euclidean, and Nei's distances, respectively. Isonymy distances between towns were significantly correlated with geographic distance, with r = 0.249 +/- 0.006 for Lasker's distance, r = 0.338 +/- 0.006 for the Euclidean distance, and r = 0.418 +/- 0.006 for Nei's distance. Two dendrograms, one for the 7 regions and one for the 232 towns, were built from the matrices of Nei's distances. The dendrogram for regions indicates that a main surname differentiation exists between the East and West areas of Texas, with West Texas being predominantly Hispanic and East Texas being predominantly English-speaking. The dendrogram for the towns confirms in detail the differences identified by the matrix of distances between regions. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in the west and in the south of the state. It was lowest in the area of Austin and Houston. Average Fisher's alpha for towns was 734, for regions it was 1,047, and for Texas as a whole it was 1,230. The geographic distribution of alpha in the state shows distinctly lower values in the traditionally Hispanic west and higher values in the east and on the Gulf of Mexico.     

Surname distributions and their association with Y-chromosome markers in the Aleutian Islands

We examine surname distribution, origin, and association with Y-chromosome haplogroups in native communities from the Aleutian archipelago. The underlying hypothesis is that surnames and Y-chromosome haplogroups should be associated because both are paternally inherited markers. We used Lasker's coefficient of relationship through isonymy (R(ib) ) to identify the distribution of 143 surnames in the Aleutian Islands. The geographic distribution of surnames was explored both through frequency distribution and through the use of Mantel tests. Multidimensional scaling, chi-square, and Mantel tests were used to examine the relationship between surname and Y-chromosome markers. Overall, we observed that the distribution of surnames in the Aleutian archipelago is culturally driven rather than being one of paternal inheritance. Surnames follow a gradient from east to west, with high frequencies of Russian surnames found in western Aleut communities and high levels of non-Russian surnames found in eastern Aleut communities. A nonsignificant correlation (r = -0.0132; P = 0.436) was found between distance matrices based on haplogroups of the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome and surnames, although an association was found between non-Russian surnames and the predominantly non-Russian haplogroups (R1b, I1a, and I).     

The names of Spain: a study of the isonymy structure of Spain

In order to estimate the isonymy structure of Spain, we studied surname distribution in 283 Spanish towns based on 3.625 million telephone users selected from 6.328 million users, downloaded from a commercial CD-ROM which contains all 13 million users in the country. Since in Spain the surname is made by the paternal and the maternal surname, it was possible to classify surnames according to parental origin. Two matrices of isonymy distances, one for paternal and one for maternal surnames, were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. For the whole of Spain, Euclidean distance was significantly but weakly correlated with geographic distance both for paternal and maternal surnames, with r = 0.205 +/- 0.013 and r = 0.263 +/- 0.012, respectively. Two dendrograms of the 283 sampled towns were built from the two matrices of Euclidean distance. They are largely colinear. Four main clusters identified by the dendrograms are correlated with geography. Given the surname structure of Spain, we were able to calculate from isonymy and for each town 1). total or expressed inbreeding, 2). random or expected inbreeding, and 3). local inbreeding. Total inbreeding, F(IT), was highest in the North Atlantic regions and lowest along the Mediterranean Coast. The lowest levels were found in Andalusia, Catalunyia, Valencia, and Navarra. Random inbreeding, F(ST), had a similar geographical pattern. Local inbreeding, F(IS), was relatively uniform in the whole of Spain. In towns, random inbreeding dominates over local inbreeding. From the analysis, it emerges that the northwestern area of Spain is the most inbred.     

Portuguese migration to the Canary Islands: an analysis based on surnames

As a part of a wider analysis of population and genetic exchange between Spain and Portugal, the long-term pattern of Portuguese immigration to the Canary Islands was studied by means of the frequency of Portuguese surnames. A database of 1,995,833 individuals was obtained from the Spanish National Statistics Institute (2006). Among the 826 most frequent surnames to appear, 79 surnames of Portuguese origin were selected. The distribution of these surnames by municipalities and islands, the Fisher index of diversity, and the Lasker inter-population relationship coefficients R(ij) were considered. These coefficients were inter-correlated and correlated with other variables that could have influenced the distribution of surnames. From the observed distribution of the frequency of surnames, a non-random migration pattern conditioned by economic factors was found. The greatest diversity of surnames existed in cane cultivating areas after the first arrival of Portuguese immigrants. A later dispersion of surnames among islands was correlated with the inter-island geographic distances. In some islands the arrival of new immigrants continued due to their strategic location within the Canary archipelago. The Canary Islands reveal a high frequency and diversity of Portuguese surnames. The results also prove a heterogeneous distribution of these surnames throughout the archipelago. In contrast to the Portuguese archipelagos, some Canary localities have received immigrants continuously because of their economic importance in sugar cane cultivation and strategic geographic location on the maritime routes to Africa and America.     

Surnames in Chile: a study of the population of Chile through isonymy

In Chile, the Hispanic dual surname system is used. To describe the isonymic structure of this country, the distribution of 16,277,255 surnames of 8,178,209 persons was studied in the 15 regions, the 54 provinces, and the 346 communes of the nation. The number of different surnames found was 72,667. Effective surname number (Fisher's α) for the entire country was 309.0, the average for regions was 240.8 ± 17.6, for provinces 209.2 ± 8.9, and for communes 178.7 ± 4.7. These values display a variation of inbreeding between administrative levels in the Chilean population, which can be attributed to the 'Prefecture effect' of Nei and Imaizumi. Matrices of isonymic distances between units within administrative levels were tested for correlation with geographic distance. The correlations were highest for provinces (r = 0.630 ± 0.019 for Euclidean distance) and lowest for communes (r = 0.366 ± 0.009 for Lasker's). The geographical distribution of the first three-dimensions of the Euclidean distance matrix suggests that population diffusion may have taken place from the north of the country toward the center and south. The prevalence of European plus European-Amerindian (95.4%) over Amerindian ethnicity (4.6%, CIA World Factbook) is compatible with diffusion of Caucasian groups over a low-density area populated by indigenous groups. The significant excess of maternal over paternal indigenous surnames indicates some asymmetric mating between nonAmerindian and Amerindian Chileans. The available studies of Y-markers and mt-markers are in agreement with this asymmetry. In the present work, we investigate the Chilean population with the aim of detecting its structure through the study of isonymy (Crow and Mange,1965) in the three administrative levels of the nation, namely 15 regions, 54 provinces, and 346 communes.     

Coefficient of relationship by isonymy between 14 Sardinian villages in the periods 1800-1824 and 1950-1974

Lasker's coefficient of relationship was calculated between 14 villages in Sardinia in order to estimate biological relationships on the base of common surnames. The data derive from parish marriage registers for the periods 1800-1824 and 1950-1974. Through time, coefficients of relationship between villages are generally higher for neighbouring villages. Moreover, the Ri between values decreases as the geographic distances increase. The negative Pearson product-moment correlation observed between the Ri matrix and the geographic distance matrix is statistically significant (Mantel's test) for the two periods considered. These results suggest that the biological similarity between villages, as shown by isonymy, tends to decrease as the geographic distance increases. In addition, the plots of isonymic relationships obtained by nonmetric multidimensional scaling for 1800-1824 and 1950-1974 show that the biological relationships between neighbouring villages increase in the second period considered.     

Surnames in Argentina: a population study through isonymy

In order to study the isonymic structure of Argentina, the surname distributions of 22.6 million electors registered for the year 2001 were analyzed in the 24 districts (distritos) and 541 municipalities (municipios) of the country. The number of different surnames found was 414,441. Matrices of isonymic distances between districts were constructed and tested for correlation with the geographic distance between the capital towns of the districts. We found that, for the whole of Argentina, Euclidean distance was correlated with the log of geographic distance (r=0.480+/- 0.067). A dendrogram of the 24 regions was built from the matrix of Euclidean distances, using the UPGMA method. The clusters identified by the dendrogram are coincident with conterminous geographical regions of the country. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in La Rioja, Corrientes, and Santiago del Estero. It was lowest in the area of Buenos Aires and in the north-central region of Santa Fé. Average Fisher's alpha for municipalities was 358; for districts, it was 422; and for Argentina as a unit, it was 602. The geographical distribution of alpha in 541 municipalities, high in the east and lower in the west of the country, is compatible with the settlement in the 20th century of subsequent waves of immigrants moving from the North Atlantic coast toward the foot of the Andes and toward the south. The present structure of Argentina indicates that migration dominates over drift.     

Isonymy and isolation by distance in the Netherlands

The isonymy structure of the Netherlands was studied using the surname distribution of 2.4 million private telephone users selected from a 1996 commercial CD-ROM containing the names of 6.3 million users in the country. The users were distributed in 226 towns selected on a geographic basis to form an approximately regular grid throughout the Netherlands. Names of telephone users in each town were downloaded from the CD-ROM, with private users being selected for inclusion in the analysis. The shortest linear distance between several nearest neighboring towns was less than 2 km (e.g., Kampen and Ijsselmuiden, Krommen and Zaandijk, Hendrikdo and Papendrecht) and the longest distance was 326 km (Delfzijl and Oostburg ZL). The number of different surnames revealed by the analysis was 126,485. Lasker's distance, the negative value of the logarithm of isonymy between localities, was found to be significantly correlated with linear geographic distance, with r = 0.47 +/- 0.006. A dendrogram built using the matrix of isonymy distances, using the nearest neighbor-joining method, separates the Dutch towns into several clusters, most of them correlated with traditional Dutch regions. Comparisons with the results of previous analyses of the structure of other European countries are given. From the present analysis, isolation by distance emerges clearly, and it is relevant, although much weaker than in Switzerland, Austria, Italy, and Germany. The random component of inbreeding estimated from isonymy indicates a considerable degree of homogeneity in the Netherlands.     

Isonymy and isolation by distance in Italy

The isonymy structure of Italy was studied using the surname distribution of 5,043,580 private telephone users selected from a 1996 commercial CD-ROM that contains all 24 million users in the country. The users were distributed in 123 towns selected on a geographic basis. The 123 towns were either on the main communication roads of the country or at the ends of such roads. The shortest distance between nearest neighbor towns was 5.3 km (Carrara and Massa), and the largest distance was 1,136 km (Aosta and Castrignano del Capo). The number of different surnames found in the whole analysis was 215,623. Lasker's distance, the negative value of the logarithm of random isonymy between localities, was linearly and significantly correlated with the logarithm of geographic distance, with r = 0.63 +/- 0.008. A dendrogram was built from the matrix of isonymy distances, using UPGMA. It separates the Italian towns into 5 main clusters: 1 in the southern portion of the country, a second cluster toward the center, and 3 in the northern area of Italy. Within each cluster small subclusters with specific geographic distributions could be related to regional borders. Comparisons with the results of a previous analysis of Switzerland and Germany's structures are given. From the present analysis isolation by distance emerges clearly, although it is less strong than in Switzerland and stronger than in Germany. The random component of inbreeding estimated from isonymy indicates that the southern area of Italy is on average more inbred than the northern area. In fact, the heterogeneity is greater in the northern area, particularly in the plain of the Po River, than anywhere else in Italy.     

Surnames in Bolivia: A study of the population of Bolivia through isonymy

In Bolivia, the Hispanic dual surname system is used. To describe the isonymic structure of Bolivia, the surname distribution of 12,139,448 persons registered in the 2006 census data was studied in 9 districts and 112 provinces of the nation, for a total of 23,244,064 surnames. The number of different surnames found was 174,922. Matrices of isonymic distances between the administrative units (districts and provinces) were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. In the 112 provinces, isonymic distances were correlated with geographic distance (r = 0.545 ± 0.011 for Euclidean, 0.501 ± 0.012 for Nei's, and 0.556 ± 0.010 for Lasker's distance). The multiple regression of the surname effective number (α), equivalent to the allele effective number in a genetic system, was nonsignificant on latitude and longitude; however, it was highly significant and negative on altitude (r = ?0.72). Because the Andes extend from north to south in west‐central Bolivia, random inbreeding was lowest in the eastern districts, and highest in mountainous western Bolivia. Average α for the provinces was 122 ± 2; for the districts, it was 216 ± 29, and for the whole of Bolivia it was 213. The geographical distribution of α in the provinces is compatible with the settlement of subsequent groups of migrants moving from east and north toward the center and south of Bolivia. The relative frequency of indigenous surnames is correlated positively with altitude. This suggests that the country was populated by recent low‐density demic diffusion over a low‐density indigenous population. This may have been a common phenomenon in the immigration to tropical South America. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Coeficient of relationship (RI) within and between four black venezuelan populations

The coefficient of relationship by isonymy R_i was obteined using paternal and maternal surnames of individuals in four black Venezuelan populations. The analysis of eight R_i values obtained from different combinations of surnames within each population and between population in two periods of time (1900–1920 and 1944–1967) show that: 1) Higher values of R_i are those that include combinations of maternal surnames, 2) R_i values of the second period are higher than those shown in the first, 3) No correlation was observed between R_i values and geographic distance. These results indicate that there is a tendency towards matrilocal behavior and show agreement with the degree of isolation of each population. The use of four surnames for estimating the coefficient of relationship by isonymy R_i, permits better comparisons of the relationship between and within groups and gives detailed information of the population structure.     

Population structure of rural settlements of Sakha Republic (Yakutia): surname structure

The distributions of surnames have been studied in 12 rural ethnic territorial groups of Sakha Republic (Yakutia). The populations studied are characterized by considerable accumulation of individual surnames, the surname spectra of representative of different ethnic groups living in the same area substantially overlapping. The random isonymy, migration index, surname diversity, and the surname distribution redundancy index display geographic and ethnic differences. The isonymy relationship coefficients calculated for representatives of individual ethnic groups (Yakuts, Evens, and Russians) and for total populations of the settlements studied are determined by the geographic distances between the compared populations and the intensity of migrations.     

A study of surnames in China through isonymy

The isonymy structure of 1.28 billion people registered in China's National Citizen Identity Information System was studied at the provincial, prefectural, and county administrative division levels. The isonymy was 0.026 for China as a whole. The average value of isonymy was 0.033 for the 30 provinces, 0.035 for the 334 prefectures, and 0.040 for the 2811 counties. The isonymy in China was much higher than in other countries. This finding may be partly explained by the low number of surnames in the Chinese language. Two regional features can be identified from the geographic distributions of isonymy. One feature is that the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River had the lowest values of isonymy at both the provincial and county levels. The second feature is that most counties with the highest values of isonymy were distributed in the provinces with high proportions of ethnic minorities. According to the dendrogram of surname distances, several clusters could be identified. Most provinces in a cluster were conterminous with one another. The one exception could be explained by demic migration called "braving the journey to the northeast of China." Isolation by distance could be detected because the correlation coefficients between Nei's distance and the geographic distances at the provincial, prefectural, and county levels were 0.64, 0.43, and 0.37, respectively. Human behaviors in Chinese history that may have caused these results have been discussed, including cultural origin, migration, residential patterns, and ethnic distribution.     

Population structure of rural settlements of Sakha Republic (Yakutia): Surname structure

The distributions of surnames have been studied in 12 rural ethnic territorial groups of Sakha Republic (Yakutia). The populations studied are characterized by considerable accumulation of individual surnames, the surname spectra of representative of different ethnic groups living in the same area substantially overlapping. The random isonymy, migration index, surname diversity, and the surname distribution redundancy index display geographic and ethnic differences. The isonymy relationship coefficients calculated for representatives of individual ethnic groups (Yakuts, Evens, and Russians) and for total populations of the settlements studied are determined by the geographic distances between the compared populations and the intensity of migrations.     

Effects of English admixture and geographic distance on anthropometric variation and genetic structure in 19th-century Ireland

The analysis of anthropometric data often allows investigation of patterns of genetic structure in historical populations. This paper focuses on interpopulational anthropometric variation in seven populations in Ireland using data collected in the 1890s. The seven populations were located within a 120-km range along the west coast of Ireland and include islands and mainland isolates. Two of the populations (the Aran Islands and Inishbofin) have a known history of English admixture in earlier centuries. Ten anthropometric measures (head length, breadth, and height; nose length and breadth; bizygomatic and bigonial breadth; stature; hand length; and forearm length) on 259 adult Irish males were analyzed following age adjustment. Discriminant and canonical variates analysis were used to determine the degree and pattern of among-group variation. Mahalanobis' distance measure, D2, was computed between each pair of populations and compared to distance measures based on geographic distance and English admixture (a binary measure indicating whether either of a pair of populations had historical indications of admixture). In addition, surname frequencies were used to construct distance measures based on random isonymy. Correlations were computed between distance measures, and their probabilities were derived using the Mantel matrix permutation method. English admixture has the greatest effect on anthropometric variation among these populations, followed by geographic distance. The correlation between anthropometric distance and geographic distance is not significant (r = -0.081, P = .590), but the correlation of admixture and anthropometric distance is significant (r = 0.829, P = .047). When the two admixed populations are removed from the analysis the correlation between geographic and anthropometric distance becomes significant (r = 0.718, P = .025). Isonymy distance shows a significant correlation with geographic distance (r = 0.425, P = .046) but not with admixture distance (r = -0.052, P = .524). The fact that anthropometrics show past patterns of gene flow and surnames do not reflects the greater impact of stochastic processes on surnames, along with the continued extinction of surnames. This study shows that 1) anthropometrics can be extremely useful in assessing population structure and history, 2) differential gene flow into populations can have a major impact on local genetic structure, and 3) microevolutionary processes can have different effects on biological characters and surnames.     

Surnames in Siberia: a study of the population of Yakutia through isonymy

We studied the isonymic structure of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), in the Russian Federation, using the surname distributions of 491,259 citizens above 18 years registered as residents in 2002. These were distributed in 35 districts and 497 towns and settlements of the Republic. The number of different surnames was 44,625. Matrices of isonymic distances between the 35 districts were tested for correlation with the geographic distance between the population centers of gravity of the districts. We found that, for the whole of Yakutia, Nei's distance was correlated with geographic distance (r = 0.693 +/- 0.027). A dendrogram of the 35 districts was built from the distance matrix, using the UPGMA method. The clusters identified by the dendrogram correlate with the geographic position of the districts. The correlation of random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), with latitude was positive and highly significant but weak (r = 0.23). So, inbreeding was highest in the Arctic districts, and lowest in the South. Average alpha for 497 towns was 107, for 35 districts it was 311, and for the Republic 433. The value of alpha was higher for Russian than for the local languages. The geographical distribution of alpha, high in the Center and South-East and lower in the North-West, is compatible with the settlement of groups of migrants moving from the South-East toward the center and the North of Yakutia. It is proposed that low-density demic diffusion of human populations results in high inbreeding and may have been a general phenomenon in the early phases of human radiations.     

Genetic structure of the Utah Mormons: isonymy analysis

Isonymy analysis is reported for a sample of 188,895 marriages extracted from the Utah Genealogical Database. Inbreeding rates estimated by isonymy are low, ranging from 0.005 for the earliest marriage cohort (1800-1809) to 0.0008 in the most recent cohort (1950-1959). The inbreeding values decrease considerably through time, but they are consistently higher than inbreeding values estimated from pedigrees. Several explanations are offered for this, including polyphyletism of surnames and the presence of Scandinavian patronyms in this population. Random isonymy between subdivisions is also compared with random kinship estimated from migration matrices. In terms of within-subdivision kinship, the two approaches yield similar results. However, the results are quite dissimilar for between-subdivision kinship. This reflects the recent and nonrandom settlement of Utah by different ethnic groups with different surname distributions. In later time periods, the correlations between the two types of kinship estimates increase, showing that migration patterns (which are strongly determined by geographic distance) exert an increasing influence on the distribution of surnames. Logistic regression is performed on a subset of marriages (n = 88,202), using isonymous vs. nonisonymous marriage as the dependent variable. The independent variables are year of marriage, geographic distance between husband's and wife's birthplaces, endogamous vs. exogamous marriage, and population sizes of husband's and wife's birthplaces. Year of marriage and geographic distance are shown to be significant independent predictors of isonymous marriage.     

Relationships among given names in the Scilly Isles

The pseudo-genetic analysis of given names shows that, in the Scilly Isles, coefficients of relationship of first names are similar on St Mary's, the Outer Isles, and in the total sample of 5666 individuals married there in two and a half centuries. Comparable coefficients of relationship of a sample of 1658 given names in marriages in England and Wales in 1975 are considerably smaller, but similar within and between districts. The coefficients of relationship of given names on the Scilly Isles decreases during the 19th and especially the 20th centuries in parallel with decreases in random relationship from surnames. The genetic versus cultural-linguistic factors cannot be distinguished in the temporal variation in names, but the geographic differentiation virtually always reported in surnames is not present in these examples of given names and the geographic pattern in the surnames thus seems to result from the hereditary aspect of surnames. This result supports the validity of use of surnames in models of human genetic geography.     

Surnames in Western Europe: a comparison of the subcontinental populations through isonymy

We studied the isonymic structure of Western Europe using the distributions of 26.2 million surnames in 8 countries, 125 regions and 2094 towns of the Subcontinent. We found that, for the whole of Western Europe, Nei's distance was correlated with geographic distance (r=0.610+/-0.009). It was observed that at long geographic distances the isonymyc distance stays below linearity and tends to become asymptotic, and this was attributed to long distance migration. A dendrogram of the125 regions was built and the clusters identified by the dendrogram are almost exactly coincident with the nations of the Subcontinent. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in Spanish regions, and lowest in France. The geographical distribution of alpha in 2094 towns, high in the Center and East of the Subcontinent and lower in Spain, is compatible with the settlement of subsequent waves of migrants moving from the West and from the South toward the centre of the Continent. The present surname structure of Western Europe is strictly linked to local languages.