槲皮素对前列腺癌细胞增殖及转录因子Sp1功能的抑制作用

雄激素受体(androgenreceptor,AR)作为核转录因子,其高表达、基因突变以及AR辅激活因子的过表达等造成AR的异常激活与前列腺癌细胞的增殖、恶化转移、多药耐药等密切相关.天然黄酮槲皮素(quercetin),是一很有潜力的预防和治疗前列腺肿瘤的化合物.槲皮素不仅抑制前列腺癌细胞LNCaP的增殖,并呈剂量依赖性,而且下调前列腺癌中AR的表达、抑制AR的转录激活功能.GCbox是AR核心启动子的主要正调控元件,是转录因子Sp1的结合位点.细胞转染结果表明,槲皮素能抑制Sp1蛋白对AR启动子的激活作用,可能是槲皮素下调AR表达的机理之一.进一步研究显示,槲皮素还能明显抑制Sp1蛋白对AR转录激活功能的增强作用.Western印迹结果显示,槲皮素对Sp1蛋白表达无明显影响,但能够诱导c-Jun的高表达,而高表达的c-Jun蛋白能逆转Sp1蛋白对AR的转录激活作用,由此推测,槲皮素可能通过介导c-Jun与Sp1的蛋白质相互作用,抑制Sp1的功能,进而起到抑制AR表达和功能的作用.免疫沉淀结果又进一步证实了Sp1与c-Jun二者的相互作用.因此,槲皮素可能通过抑制前列腺癌细胞中AR的表达和功能抑制了细胞的增殖,其分子机理可能与槲皮素诱导的c-Jun与Sp1蛋白相互作用、降低Sp1对AR的转录激活作用有关.     

Functional domain and motif analyses of androgen receptor coregulator ARA70 and its differential expression in prostate cancer

Androgen receptor (AR)-associated coregulator 70 (ARA70) was the first identified AR coregulator. However, its molecular mechanism and biological relevance to prostate cancer remain unclear. Here we show that ARA70 interacts with and promotes AR activity via the consensus FXXLF motif within the ARA70-N2 domain (amino acids 176-401). However, it does not promote AR activity via the classic LXXLL motif located at amino acids 92-96, although this classic LXXLL motif is important for ARA70 to interact with other receptors, such as PPARgamma. The molecular mechanisms by which ARA70 enhances AR transactivation involve the increase of AR expression, protein stability, and nuclear translocation. Furthermore, ARA70 protein is more frequently detected in prostate cancer specimens (91.74%) than in benign tissues (64.64%, p < 0.0001). ARA70 expression is also increased in high-grade prostate cancer tissues as well as the hormone-refractory LNCaP xenografts and prostate cancer cell lines. Because ARA70 can promote the antiandrogen hydroxyflutamide (HF)-enhanced AR transactivation, the increased ARA70 expression in hormone-refractory prostate tumors may confer the development of HF withdrawal syndrome, commonly diagnosed in patients with the later stages of prostate cancer. Because ARA70-N2 containing the AR-interacting FXXLF motif without coactivation function can suppress HF-enhanced AR transactivation in the hormone-refractory LNCaP cells, using the ARA70-N2 inhibitory peptide at the hormone refractory stage to battle the HF withdrawal syndrome may become an alternative strategy to treat prostate cancer.     

A dominant-negative mutant of androgen receptor coregulator ARA54 inhibits androgen receptor-mediated prostate cancer growth.

The ligand-bound androgen receptor (AR) regulates target genes via a mechanism involving coregulators such as androgen receptor-associated 54 (ARA54). We investigated whether the interruption of the AR coregulator function could lead to down-regulation of AR activity. Using in vitro mutagenesis and a yeast two-hybrid screening assay, we have isolated a mutant ARA54 (mt-ARA54) carrying a point mutation at amino acid 472 changing a glutamic acid to lysine, which acts as a dominant-negative inhibitor of AR transactivation. In transient transfection assays of prostate cancer cell lines, the mt-ARA54 suppressed endogenous mutated AR-mediated and exogenous wild-type AR-mediated transactivation in LNCaP and PC-3 cells, respectively. In DU145 cells, the mt-ARA54 suppressed exogenous ARA54 but not other coregulators, such as ARA55-enhanced or SRC-1-enhanced AR transactivation. In the LNCaP cells stably transfected with the plasmids encoding the mt-ARA54 under the doxycycline inducible system, the overexpression of the mt-ARA54 inhibited cell growth and endogenous expression of prostate-specific antigen. Mammalian two-hybrid assays further demonstrated that the mt-ARA54 can disrupt the interaction between wild-type ARA54 molecules, suggesting that ARA54 dimerization or oligomerization may play an essential role in the enhancement of AR transactivation. Together, our results demonstrate that a dominant-negative AR coregulator can suppress AR transactivation and cell proliferation in prostate cancer cells. Further studies may provide a new therapeutic approach for blocking AR-mediated prostate cancer growth.     

Regulation of androgen receptor signaling by PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) tumor suppressor through distinct mechanisms in prostate cancer cells

Defects in the PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) tumor suppressor gene have been found in many human cancers including breast and prostate. Here we show that PTEN suppresses androgen receptor (AR) activity via a phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase/Akt-independent pathway in the early passage numbers prostate cancer LNCaP cells. We provide the direct links between PTEN and androgen/AR signaling by demonstrating that AR directly interacts with PTEN. The interaction between PTEN and AR inhibits the AR nuclear translocation and promotes the AR protein degradation that result in the suppression of AR transactivation and induction of apoptosis. The minimum interaction peptide within AR (amino acids 483-651) disrupts the interaction of PTEN with AR and reduces the PTEN effect on AR transactivation and apoptosis. Genetic approaches using PTEN-null mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) further demonstrate that both AR expression and AR activity were much higher in PTEN-null MEFs than wild-type MEFs, and reintroducing PTEN into PTEN-null MEFs dramatically reduced AR protein levels and AR activity. Interestingly, we also found that PTEN could suppress AR activity via the phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase/Akt-dependent pathway in the higher passage number LNCaP cells, because restoration of Akt activity blocks the effect of PTEN on AR activity. Together, these contrasting PTEN effects on AR activity in the same prostate cancer cell line with different passage numbers suggest that PTEN, via distinct mechanisms, differentially regulates AR in various stages of prostate cancers.     

A competitive inhibitor that reduces recruitment of androgen receptor to androgen-responsive genes

The androgen receptor (AR) has a critical role in the growth and progression of androgen-dependent and castration-resistant prostate cancers. To identify novel inhibitors of AR transactivation that block growth of prostate cancer cells, a luciferase-based high-throughput screen of ~160,000 small molecules was performed in cells stably expressing AR and a prostate-specific antigen (PSA)-luciferase reporter. CPIC (1-(3-(2-chlorophenoxy) propyl)-1H-indole-3-carbonitrile) was identified as a small molecule that blocks AR transactivation to a greater extent than other steroid receptors. CPIC inhibited AR-mediated proliferation of androgen-sensitive prostate cancer cell lines, with minimal toxicity in AR-negative cell lines. CPIC treatment also reduced the anchorage-independent growth of LAPC-4 prostate cancer cells. CPIC functioned as a pure antagonist by inhibiting the expression of AR-regulated genes in LAPC-4 cells that express wild-type AR and exhibited weak agonist activity in LNCaP cells that express the mutant AR-T877A. CPIC treatment did not reduce AR levels or alter its nuclear localization. We used chromatin immunoprecipitation to identify the site of action of CPIC. CPIC inhibited recruitment of androgen-bound AR to the PSA promoter and enhancer sites to a greater extent than bicalutamide. CPIC is a new therapeutic inhibitor that targets AR-mediated gene activation with potential to arrest the growth of prostate cancer.     

Overexpression of JKTBP1 induces androgen-independent LNCaP cell proliferation through activation of epidermal growth factor-receptor (EGF-R)

Heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein D-like protein (JKTBP) belongs to a new member of hnRNPs. Previous studies implied that JKTBP1 may be associated with the progression of androgen-independent (AI) prostate cancer. In this study, we generated three stable LNCaP cell lines which expressed exogenous JKTBP1. Furthermore, the effect of ectopic JKTBP1 on the proliferation of LNCaP cells and its mechanism was investigated. We originally found that the ectopic JKTBP1 expression resulted in the proliferation of LNCaP cells in an AI way, as well as inducing the upregulated expression of EGF-R and prostate-specific antigen (PSA), but did not influence the expression level of AR. Moreover, AG1478 suppressed the effect of proliferation induced by JKTBP1. In addition, immunohistochemistry showed that JKTBP1 expression was significantly elevated in AI prostate cancer tissues when compared with the androgen-dependent (AD) prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Our data indicated that overexpression of JKTBP1 in LNCaP cells leads to abnormal cell proliferation and may be involved in the process of AD to AI through induction of EGF-R expression.     

Phosphorylation and Activation of Androgen Receptor by Aurora-A

Aurora-A kinase is frequently overexpressed/activated in various types of human malignancy, including prostate cancer. In this study, we demonstrate elevated levels of Aurora-A in androgen-refractory LNCaP-RF but not androgen-sensitive LNCaP cells, which prompted us to examine whether Aurora-A regulates the androgen receptor (AR) and whether elevated Aurora-A is involved in androgen-independent cell growth. We show that ectopic expression of Aurora-A induces AR transactivation activity in the presence and absence of androgen. Aurora-A interacts with AR and phosphorylates AR at Thr²⁸² and Ser²⁹³ in vitro and in vivo. Aurora-A induces AR transactivation activity in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. Ectopic expression of Aurora-A in LNCaP cells induces prostate-specific antigen expression and cell survival, whereas knockdown of Aurora-A sensitizes LNCaP-RF cells to apoptosis and cell growth arrest. These data indicate that AR is a substrate of Aurora-A and that elevated Aurora-A could contribute to androgen-independent cell growth by phosphorylation and activation of AR.