Gardens in urbanizing rural areas reveal an unexpected floral diversity related to housing density

The increasing urbanization of rural areas leads to a strong development of horticultural flora, which is the main source of alien and invasive plants. In order to assess the pool of cultivated species under different urbanization pressures, the diversity and distribution of horticultural flora were studied in 120 Mediterranean gardens belonging to three housing density types. The results showed a great richness and heterogeneity of this flora, and similarities in species composition between gardens of the same housing density types. Twenty-four percent of the cultivated species are well adapted to the Mediterranean climate, and 21 species known to be invasive on the French territory have emanated from gardens. Inventorying areas adjoining gardens would be useful in identifying escaped garden plants and to assess the associated risks for biological diversity. The results also suggested a detailed analysis of the influence of social, economic and regional factors on planting practices, in order to identify the drivers of these original floral patterns.     

Garden Size, Householder Knowledge, and Socio-Economic Status Influence Plant and Bird Diversity at the Scale of Individual Gardens

Domestic gardens collectively cover substantial areas within cities and play an important role in supporting urban biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. The extent of their contribution to urban biodiversity is ultimately determined by the attitudes, motivations, and practices of their owners. We identified variables characterizing individual householders and their properties that explained variation in perennial plant and avian species richness and plant diversity among 55 gardens in New Zealand. The size of the vegetated area was most important in explaining bird and plant diversity, independent of property size. Also important and positively associated with plant richness were socio-economic status and ability to discriminate between native and exotic species. Median housing age and neighborhood green space were less important. Contrary to expectations, better educated householders who demonstrated pro-environmental orientation (NEP) did not necessarily have gardens with greater plant diversity, however, people with higher NEP scores tended to have gardens with more structurally complex vegetation. Similar variables were important in explaining native and exotic species richness, but higher exotic plant diversity was associated with older people with smaller properties of lower value. Avian species richness increased primarily with vegetated area, but also the areas of beds and hedges. We demonstrate that although householder knowledge is an important determinant of garden biodiversity, vegetated area is most important. Promoting urban garden biodiversity requires that larger vegetated properties be supported and encouraged, and that planners should consider biodiversity when formulating policies concerning garden size, property size, and consents that may result in a progressive increase in the proportion of built over/paved areas.     

Comparison of U.S. and Japanese Consumers’ Perceptions of Remanufactured Auto Parts

This study compares U.S. and Japanese consumers’ perceptions of remanufactured auto parts. Remanufactured parts have a long history and enjoy continuing success in the U.S. domestic aftermarket. In contrast, although Japan's domestic aftermarket is growing, it remains comparatively underdeveloped. This research examines whether customers’ perceptions of remanufactured products explain their lower acceptance in Japan. Our Internet survey of 440 U.S. and 300 Japanese respondents examined their knowledge of remanufactured auto parts, perceptions of their benefits and risks, and price consciousness. The results reveal that Japanese consumers know less about remanufactured products, perceiving them as entailing lower benefits and greater risk, especially concerning quality, and are less price conscious. Drawing on its results, this study suggests measures to promote markets for remanufactured auto parts in Japan and in economies in which such markets are in an early stage of development.     

Knowledge,perceptions and willingness to control designated invasive tree species in urban household gardens in South Africa

Many biological invasions result in negative impacts on the environment and human livelihoods, but simultaneously some also provide benefits that are valued differently by various stakeholders. To inform policy and management of invasive species it is important to assess landowners’ and broader society’s knowledge and perceptions of invasive species, something which is lacking in many contexts, especially in urban settings. In this study we interviewed 153 householders living in a medium-sized South African town who had declared invasive alien trees in their gardens. Less than half of the respondents could identify the invasive tree on their property and only one-third knew that it was an invasive alien species. There was a positive association between income and education levels with exposure to media about invasive alien species and respondents’ ability to identify the species and name any other invasive alien tree species. Knowledge levels were unequal across species. Amongst those who knew the tree was an invasive alien species, reasons why they retained it in their gardens included that it would be costly or too much effort to remove, they liked the tree, that it was not causing any harm and that the property was rented and so its removal was not their responsibility. However, the majority of people (83 %) were willing to have it removed from their garden if done for free by appropriate agencies, which is promising for compliance with new regulations on invasive species implemented at the end of 2014 in South Africa. The results also highlight the need for targeted and appropriate education and awareness programs amongst urban householders on invasive alien species, relevant legislation and their obligations.     

Samango Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cercopithecus albogularis labiatus</Emphasis>) Manage Risk in a Highly Seasonal,Human-Modified Landscape in Amathole Mountains,South Africa

Wild species use habitats that vary in risk across space and time. This risk can derive from natural predators and also from direct and indirect human pressures. A starving forager will often take risks that a less hungry forager would not. At a highly seasonal and human-modified site, we predicted that arboreal samango monkeys (Cercopithecus albogularis labiatus) would show highly flexible, responsive, risk-sensitive foraging. We first determined how monkeys use horizontal and vertical space across seasons to evaluate if high-risk decisions (use of gardens and ground) changed with season, a proxy for starvation risk. Then, during a subsequent winter, we offered equal feeding opportunities (in the form of high-value, raw peanuts) in both gardens and forest to see if this short-term change in food availability and starvation risk affected monkeys’ foraging decisions. We found that during the food-scarce winter, monkeys foraged outside indigenous forest and in gardens, where they fed on exotic species, especially fallen acorns (Quercus spp.), despite potential threats from humans. Nevertheless, and as predicted, when given the choice of foraging on high-value foods in gardens vs. forest during our artificial foraging experiment, monkeys showed a preference for a safer forest habitat. Our experiment also indicated monkeys’ sensitivity to risk in the lower vertical strata of both habitats, despite their previous extensive use of the ground. Our findings support one of the central tenets of optimal foraging theory: that risk of starvation and sensitivity to the variation in food availability can be as important drivers of behavior as risk of predation.     

Urban Domestic Gardens (IV): The Extent of the Resource and its Associated Features

Domestic (‘private’) gardens constitute a substantial proportion of ‘green space’ in urban areas and hence are of potential significance for the maintenance of biodiversity in such areas. However, the size and nature of this resource and its associated features are poorly known. In this study, we provide the first detailed audit, using domestic gardens in the city of Sheffield as a model study system. Domestic gardens, the mean area of which was 151 m², cover approximately 33 km² or 23% of the predominantly urban area of the city. The smaller gardens contribute disproportionately to this total because, although individually they add little, they are large in number. Conversely, the regions of the city with proportionately more garden area contribute most to the total garden area of the city, although such regions are limited in number. Based on the findings of a telephone based survey, 14.4% of dwellings with gardens were estimated to have ponds, 26% to have nest-boxes, 29% to have compost heaps, 48% to hold trees more than 3 m tall, and 14% of dwellings were estimated to be home to one or more cats. Whilst the absolute frequency of these features is low to moderate, by extrapolation they nonetheless yield estimates for domestic gardens in Sheffield of a total of 25,200 ponds, 45,500 nest boxes, 50,750 compost heaps, 360,000 trees, and a population of 52,000 domestic cats. These results are considered in the context of the role of gardens in urban areas as habitats for wildlife and the implications for housing policy.     

Extreme differences in population structure and genetic diversity for three invasive congeners: knotweeds in western North America

Japanese, giant, and the hybrid Bohemian knotweeds (Fallopia japonica, F. sachalinensis and F. × bohemica) have invaded the western USA and Canada, as well as other regions of the world. The distribution of these taxa in western North America, and their mode of invasion, is relatively unresolved. Using amplified fragment length polymorphisms of 858 plants from 131 populations from British Columbia to California to South Dakota, we determined that Bohemian knotweed was the most common taxon (71 % of all plants). This result is in contrast to earlier reports of F. × bohemica being uncommon or non-existent in the USA, and also differs from the European invasion where it is rarer. Japanese knotweed was monotypic, while giant knotweed and Bohemian knotweed were genetically diverse. Our genetic data suggest that Japanese knotweed in western North America spreads exclusively by vegetative reproduction. Giant knotweed populations were mostly monotypic, with most containing distinct genotypes, suggesting local spread by vegetative propagules, whereas Bohemian knotweed spreads by both seed and vegetative propagules, over both long and short distances. The high relative abundance and genetic diversity of Bohemian knotweed make it a priority for control in North America.     

The influence of microclimate on bryophyte diversity in an urban Japanese garden landscape

Landscape and Ecological Engineering - Japanese gardens play an important role in the conservation of bryophyte diversity. Previous studies have indicated that diverse garden landscapes and their...     

Rethinking the common garden in invasion research

In common garden experiments, a number of genotypes are raised in a common environment in order to quantify the genetic component of phenotypic variation. Common gardens are thus ideally suited for disentangling how genetic and environmental factors contribute to the success of invasive species in their new non-native range. Although common garden experiments are increasingly employed in the study of invasive species, there has been little discussion about how these experiments should be designed for greatest utility. We argue that this has delayed progress in developing a general theory of invasion biology. We suggest a minimum optimal design (MOD) for common garden studies that target the ecological and evolutionary processes leading to phenotypic differentiation between native and invasive ranges. This involves four elements: (A) multiple, strategically sited garden locations, involving at the very least four gardens (2 in the native range and 2 in the invaded range); (B) careful consideration of the genetic design of the experiment; (C) standardization of experimental protocols across all gardens; and (D) care to ensure the biosafety of the experiment. Our understanding of the evolutionary ecology of biological invasions will be greatly enhanced by common garden studies, if and only if they are designed in a more systematic fashion, incorporating at the very least the MOD suggested here.     

Urban domestic gardens (XI): variation in urban wildlife gardening in the United Kingdom

Two consequences of the continued urbanisation of the human population are that a growing proportion of the landscape is less hospitable to, and that a growing proportion of people are disconnected from, native biodiversity. One response of the UK government has been to establish a goal, and an associated baseline indicator, of increasing the extent and range of public participation in gardening for wildlife. The formulation of policy to attain this end requires, however, insight into the factors that are associated with the level of participation. Here we examine the relationships, across 15 areas in five UK cities, between the proportion of households providing various garden features for wildlife or participating in various wildlife gardening activities, and housing densities and characteristics of the garden resource. We show that significant numbers of households participate in some form of wildlife gardening, but that the predominant form this participation takes is feeding wild birds. Key variables associated with spatial variation in wildlife gardening activities are the proportion of households with access to a garden and, more importantly, average garden size and the proportion of land cover by gardens. There was no evidence for strong effects of household density or the socio-economic status of householders on the prevalence of wildlife friendly features in gardens or on the participation by householders in activities to encourage wildlife. Our results suggest important considerations in attempts to increase awareness and participation in wildlife gardening.     

Home gardens: neglected hotspots of agro-biodiversity and cultural diversity

Over the last two decades, the importance of conserving genetic resources has received increasing attention. In this context the role of home gardens as repositories of biological diversity has been acknowledged but still a comprehensive, interdisciplinary investigation of their agro-biodiversity is lacking. Home gardens, whether found in rural or urban areas, are characterized by a structural complexity and multifunctionality which enables the provision of different benefits to ecosystems and people. Studies carried out in various countries demonstrate that high levels of inter- and intra-specific plant genetic diversity, especially in terms of traditional crop varieties and landraces, are preserved in home gardens. Families engage in food production for subsistence or small-scale marketing and the variety of crops and wild plants provides nutritional benefits. At the same time, home gardens are important social and cultural spaces where knowledge related to agricultural practices is transmitted and through which households may improve their income and livelihoods. The present article summarizes available literature on the biological and cultural significance of agro-biodiversity in home gardens. It discusses future constraints and opportunities in home garden research, in the prospect of defining and promoting their role in conservation of agricultural biodiversity and cultural heritage.     

珍稀植物毛花轴榈的开发利用

为了有效地保护和利用我国的珍稀野生植物资源,对珍稀濒危植物毛花轴榈的形态特征、分布、繁殖栽培及适应性进行了介绍,并对其在园林上的应用进行了探讨.认为毛花轴榈是优良的庭园绿化和室内观赏植物,值得推广应用.     

Unsafe management of a zoological garden as a cause of introduction of an alien species into the wild: First documented case of feral naturalized population of Lama glama in Europe

Zoological gardens host large numbers of wild species and domestic forms, mostly not indigenous to the place where the zoological garden is located. Escapes (or releases) from zoological gardens are recognized as a pathway of introduction of alien species, leading in some cases to a naturalized population. Although previously reported worldwide, scientific accounts of escapes from zoos are rare and often anecdotal. In this note, we document, for the first time in Europe and, to our knowledge, in an area outside its native range, a case of introduction and establishment of a feral population of Llama (Lama glama), originating from a group of animals living in captivity at the Zoological Park of Cavriglia (Tuscany, central Italy). We reconstruct in detail the story of the population since 1974, also reporting preliminary data on abundance, distribution and diet. Finally, we critically evaluate the causes of this introduction, highlighting how unsafe the management of a zoological garden can be, and we discuss the implications for conservation and management perspectives.     

Home Gardens Sustain Crop Diversity and Improve Farm Resilience in Candelaria Loxicha,Oaxaca, Mexico

Home gardens are land use units embedded in a larger land use system, in this case in Candelaria Loxicha, Oaxaca, Mexico. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods, we investigated how home gardens are integrated into local farming practices and how these influence biodiversity. Our findings suggest that home gardens harbour high levels of biodiversity, which are maintained and enriched by farmers’ practices, particularly plant and seed exchange. Plant diversity is higher in younger home gardens and in home gardens where owners actively exchange plant material with other people. Through plant exchange, seed storage, and the dispersion of seeds and plants in different land uses, farmers encourage plant diversity and consequently increase the resilience of their farming system in changing climatic, demographic and economic conditions. Both men and women participate in the establishment, care and management of home gardens, but they are responsible for different plants and home garden functions. For economic reasons, the inhabitants of Candelaria Loxicha are increasingly engaging in international migration. Migrants, upon their return bring new ideas and plants that might transform the rural landscape.     

Are all risk perceptions created equal? Comparing general risk assessments and specific risk assessments associated with climate change

For policy-making to address public risk perceptions effectively, policy-makers must have a clear understanding of the nature of public risks. Public opinion polls regularly solicit perceptions of risk toward a variety of topics. These assessments, though, tend to be general with no specificity offered for a nuanced interpretation. Yet, there is good reason to assume that risk perceptions are not based on the same criteria. If true, policy-makers may be unable to address risks adequately without a better understanding of the drivers of risk perceptions. This project focuses on two primary research questions: (1) Does the public weigh the risk associated with global climate change differently in specific sub-domains? (2) If so, which climate change sub-domains are various members of the public most concerned about when offering a general assessment of global climate change risk? We assess public risk perceptions of climate change in three sub-domains—public health, economic development, and environment—and find that two of the three sub-domains are predictors of a general assessment of risk.     

Urban heat island effects on moss gardens in Kyoto,Japan

Urban heat islands (UHIs) represent a serious problem for urban biodiversity and landscapes. The impact of UHIs on Japanese gardens are of particular concern because these gardens use moss as a ground cover, and moss can be strongly affected by UHIs due to their sensitivity to drought stress. We studied 17 historical gardens in Kyoto, Japan, and propose an effective management strategy for moss gardens that takes into account the influence of UHIs on these gardens. The study sites included gardens covered by large patches of hygrophilous moss, gardens covered by mosses including small patches of hygrophilous moss, gardens covered by relatively drought-resistant moss, and gardens with small patches of mosses. We measured temperature and relative humidity within the gardens and determined the surrounding land-use types. A comparison of microclimates showed significant differences among garden types. Hygrophilous gardens had the lowest temperature and highest relative humidity, whereas gardens with small patches of moss had the highest temperature and lowest relative humidity. Using structural equation models, we determined that urbanization within 1000 m from the gardens increased temperature and decreased relative humidity, strongly affecting the type of garden. These effects could be attributed to the sensitivity of mosses to changes in microclimate caused by UHIs. Taken together, the results indicate that urban planning—e.g., increasing green space—within 1000 m of moss gardens can maintain those gardens by mitigating the influence of UHIs.

     

Assessing the risks of plant invasions arising from collections in tropical botanical gardens

Tropical botanical gardens have played an important role in the distribution, naturalisation and spread of non-native plants worldwide. Appropriate guidance relating to risk assessments of established botanical garden collections is often scarce. This paper uses the Amani Botanical Garden (ABG), Tanzania, as a case study to highlight appropriate methods to assess the risks posed by existing and future collections in tropical botanical gardens. Key considerations included field assessments of species status using accepted definitions of naturalisation, spread and invasion, distinguishing between intentionally and unintentionally introduced species, identifying taxonomic patterns in invasion status, assessing patterns in habitats colonised, and determining how knowledge of invasion elsewhere might be useful in forecasting risk. Out of the 214 alien plant species surviving from the original plantings in the early 20th century, 35 had only regenerated, 38 had locally naturalised while 16 had spread widely in the botanical garden. A further 16 species with unclear introduction records in the garden were also found to be naturalised. A greater proportion of introduced species were potentially invasive than might be expected from previous analyses of global floras. Overall, just over half of all naturalised and spreading species were also observed in forest fragments and edges. The proportion of species that had been recorded elsewhere as naturalised/invasive was significantly related to their status in ABG, with 94% of spreading species and 79% of naturalising species being recorded as naturalised or invasive elsewhere, compared to 57% of species that were only regenerating and 49% of species only surviving. Recommendations for further risk assessments of botanical garden collections are discussed.     

North American History of Two Invasive Plant Species: Phytogeographic Distribution, Dispersal Vectors, and Multiple Introductions

The North American historic phytogeographic distribution of mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) and Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum), two invasive perennial species introduced from Eurasia and East Asia respectively, was recreated using herbarium records. The putative initial introduction of these two species differs by c.a. 400 years, but their patterns of geographic distribution, introduction pathways, and local dispersal pathways are similar. Both species showed the expected logistic growth relationship between range size and the time following introduction, with lag phases of nearly 400 and 50 years for mugwort and Japanese knotweed respectively. The intrinsic growth rate was greater in Japanese knotweed than mugwort for the US, Canada, and North America. Both species were frequently found along waterway, railroad, and road rights-of-way. Introduction pathways differed, with Japanese knotweed commonly labeled as an ornamental escape (151 collections), while mugwort was commonly cited as an inadvertent component of ship ballast (20 collections). These potential founding populations were located across the final distribution for both species, suggesting anthropogenic large-scale dispersal across North America with local secondary spread. Range expansion appears to be active for both species in the US while nearing the carrying capacity in Canada. Managers of mugwort and Japanese knotweed can make use of this information on their range expansion dynamics and dispersal pathways by reducing anthropogenic dispersal and focusing resources on satellite populations and invasion corridors.     

Direct and indirect effects of a sex-biased antagonist on male and female fertility: consequences for reproductive trait evolution in a gender-dimorphic plant

Gender-dimorphic plants are often subject to sex-differential enemy attack, but whether and how this contributes to trait evolution is unknown. To address this gap, we documented the spatiotemporal prevalence of sex-biased weevil damage in a gynodioecious strawberry. We then conducted path analysis to evaluate the direct and indirect pathways for weevils to affect female and male fertility and to mediate selection in two experimental gardens. Direct effects of weevils significantly reduced fertility and mediated selection on reproductive traits, even in the nonpreferred sex (females). Weevils significantly reduced floral display size in hermaphrodites in both gardens, and this translated into a substantial negative indirect effect on male fertility in the garden where the pathway to fertility via display was stronger. Thus, indirect effects of weevils can contribute to selection in hermaphrodites, which gain the majority of their fitness via male function. Our results also indicate that weevils often play a larger role than pollinators in shaping reproductive phenotype and thus raise the intriguing possibility that antagonists may be drivers of sexual dimorphism. Finally, our results support the view that mutualists, antagonists, and the abiotic environment should be considered when attempting to understand reproductive trait evolution in gender-dimorphic species.     

Global regulations on diabetic treated with insulin and their operation of commercial motor vehicles. DiaMond Project Group on Social Issues.

Governments often regulate who may and may not drive vocationally for public safety purposes. Recent arguments, however, imply that employment opportunities may be limited unnecessarily for people with medical impairments. Drivers with diabetes treated with insulin are commonly perceived to pose an increased risk of accidents because of their susceptibility to hypoglycaemia. Much uncertainty, though, surrounds the data on the risks of these drivers. An international survey studied the licensing policies applied to professional lorry drivers with diabetes treated with insulin. Responses from 24 countries indicated that regulations differ considerably; ranging from a complete ban on professional driving to no restrictions at all. Many reasons may explain this difference, including the lack of data on the effects of hypoglycaemia on the incidence of traffic accidents. A proper account of the risks of diabetic drivers is necessary to balance fairly the rights of employment against the risks.