Now you See them, Now you don't! – Population Crashes of Established Introduced Species

Substantial populations of invasive non-indigenous species occasionally collapse dramatically. Although disease is often invoked, the causes are rarely studied experimentally and/or quantitatively, and some collapses remain quite mysterious. The widespread invasive snail Achatina fulica and pondweed Elodea canadensis appear to be characterized by rapid expansion followed by rapid decline. For the former species, disease may be the proximal cause of the collapse, while repeated collapse of the latter species is unexplained. Several other widely cited collapses of introduced species may simply be temporary lows during a more or less regular boom-and-bust cycle. However, on a restricted site (such as a small island), a boom-or-bust cycle may be impossible and recovery may never ensue; local extinction may even occur. In several instances, apparently spontaneous crashes were in fact probably caused by subsequently introduced competitors. Except for the few species in which spontaneous collapse has been repeatedly observed, the possibility of such an event is unwarranted as a potential rationale for a do-nothing approach to management. For such species, even if a crash ultimately occurs, the species may already have caused persistent ecological damage.     

Booms,busts and population collapses in invasive ants

The abundance of many invasive species can vary substantially over time, with dramatic population declines and local extinctions frequently observed in a wide range of taxa. We highlight population crashes of invasive ants, which are some of the most widespread and damaging invasive animals. Population collapse or substantial declines have been observed in nearly all of the major invasive ant species including the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes), Argentine ants (Linepithema humile), big-headed or coastal brown ant (Pheidole megacephala), the tropical fire ant (Solenopsis geminata), red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta), and the little fire ant or electric ant (Wasmannia auropunctata). These declines frequently attract little attention, especially compared with their initial invasion phase. Suggested mechanisms for population collapse include pathogens or parasites, changes in the food availability, or even long-term effects of the reproductive biology of invasive ants. A critical component of the collapses may be a reduction in the densities of the invasive ant species, which are often competitively weak in low abundance. We propose that mechanisms causing a reduction in invasive ant abundance may initiate a local extinction vortex. Declines in abundance likely reduce the invasive ant’s competitive ability, resource acquisition and defense capability. These reductions could further reduce the abundance of an invasive ant species, and so on. Management of invasive ants through the use of pesticides is expensive, potentially ecologically harmful, and can be ineffective. We argue that pesticide use may even have the potential to forestall natural population declines and collapses. We propose that in order to better manage these invasive ants, we need to understand and capitalize on features of their population dynamics that promote population collapse.     

Population dynamics of invading freshwater fish: common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia

There is much interest in managing invasive freshwater fish, but little is known about the dynamics of these populations following establishment. We used annual commercial catch-per-unit-effort data at multiple spatio-temporal scales to test hypotheses about the population dynamics of invading common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. We hypothesised that following establishment of the Boolara strain of this species in the Murray-Darling Basin in 1961/1962: (1) carp would undergo exponential or logistic-type population growth; and (2) carp population growth rates would be highest following over-bank flood events that provided extensive off-channel spawning and feeding habitats. The logistic (w _i  = 0.73) and delayed-logistic (w _i  = 0.27) models best explained the population dynamics of common carp in the Murray-Darling Basin during 1962/1963–2001/2002; there was negligible support for exponential growth (w _i  ≤ 0.01). Although we cannot exclude the possibility that floods may have been important in the early years of the invasion we found little evidence that carp population growth rates increased following flood events. Our logistic-type model-based estimates of the maximum annual population growth rate (r _m; 0.378 and 0.384) indicate that >0.315 or 0.319 of the adult population would need to be removed annually to achieve eradication. We conclude that the rapid spread of the Boolara strain of common carp through the Murray-Darling Basin was facilitated by high initial population growth rates. More generally, we suggest that the lag period between an invader establishing and increasing to high abundances will be characterised by logistic-type population growth. We encourage others to investigate the long-term population dynamics of invading freshwater fish using time series and models such as those reported here.     

Historical demography of common carp estimated from individuals collected from various parts of the world using the pairwise sequentially markovian coalescent approach

The inference of historical demography of a species is helpful for understanding species’ differentiation and its population dynamics. However, such inference has been previously difficult due to the lack of proper analytical methods and availability of genetic data. A recently developed method called Pairwise Sequentially Markovian Coalescent (PSMC) offers the capability for estimation of the trajectories of historical populations over considerable time periods using genomic sequences. In this study, we applied this approach to infer the historical demography of the common carp using samples collected from Europe, Asia and the Americas. Comparison between Asian and European common carp populations showed that the last glacial period starting 100 ka BP likely caused a significant decline in population size of the wild common carp in Europe, while it did not have much of an impact on its counterparts in Asia. This was probably caused by differences in glacial activities in East Asia and Europe, and suggesting a separation of the European and Asian clades before the last glacial maximum. The North American clade which is an invasive population shared a similar demographic history as those from Europe, consistent with the idea that the North American common carp probably had European ancestral origins. Our analysis represents the first reconstruction of the historical population demography of the common carp, which is important to elucidate the separation of European and Asian common carp clades during the Quaternary glaciation, as well as the dispersal of common carp across the world.     

Fishing,fast growth and climate variability increase the risk of collapse

Species around the world have suffered collapses, and a key question is why some populations are more vulnerable than others. Traditional conservation biology and evidence from terrestrial species suggest that slow-growing populations are most at risk, but interactions between climate variability and harvest dynamics may alter or even reverse this pattern. Here, we test this hypothesis globally. We use boosted regression trees to analyse the influences of harvesting, species traits and climate variability on the risk of collapse (decline below a fixed threshold) across 154 marine fish populations around the world. The most important factor explaining collapses was the magnitude of overfishing, while the duration of overfishing best explained long-term depletion. However, fast growth was the next most important risk factor. Fast-growing populations and those in variable environments were especially sensitive to overfishing, and the risk of collapse was more than tripled for fast-growing when compared with slow-growing species that experienced overfishing. We found little evidence that, in the absence of overfishing, climate variability or fast growth rates alone drove population collapse over the last six decades. Expanding efforts to rapidly adjust harvest pressure to account for climate-driven lows in productivity could help to avoid future collapses, particularly among fast-growing species.     

Response of an arctic predator guild to collapsing lemming cycles

Alpine and arctic lemming populations appear to be highly sensitive to climate change, and when faced with warmer and shorter winters, their well-known high-amplitude population cycles may collapse. Being keystone species in tundra ecosystems, changed lemming dynamics may convey significant knock-on effects on trophically linked species. Here, we analyse long-term (1988–2010), community-wide monitoring data from two sites in high-arctic Greenland and document how a collapse in collared lemming cyclicity affects the population dynamics of the predator guild. Dramatic changes were observed in two highly specialized lemming predators: snowy owl and stoat. Following the lemming cycle collapse, snowy owl fledgling production declined by 98 per cent, and there was indication of a severe population decline of stoats at one site. The less specialized long-tailed skua and the generalist arctic fox were more loosely coupled to the lemming dynamics. Still, the lemming collapse had noticeable effects on their reproductive performance. Predator responses differed somewhat between sites in all species and could arise from site-specific differences in lemming dynamics, intra-guild interactions or subsidies from other resources. Nevertheless, population extinctions and community restructuring of this arctic endemic predator guild are likely if the lemming dynamics are maintained at the current non-cyclic, low-density state.     

Does localized control of invasive eastern gambusia (Poeciliidae: Gambusia holbrooki) increase population growth of generalist wetland fishes?

While invasive fish management is heavily focussed on containment measures when introductions occur, examples from invasive species management in terrestrial systems suggest that there may also be considerable conservation benefits in implementing localized control programmes. We conducted a field‐based experiment to assess the effectiveness of removing a globally significant invasive fish, eastern gambusia Gambusia holbrooki, from natural wetland habitats of south‐eastern Australia. With recent work suggesting the impacts of eastern gambusia may be minimal for species with generalist life‐history strategies, we hypothesized that the removal of eastern gambusia will reduce localized population growth of the invasive species, but will have little influence on the population growth of more generalist sympatric wetland fish species. We used a predictive modelling approach to investigate changes in eastern gambusia populations following removal activities, and how sympatric fish species responded to such changes. Although eastern gambusia rapidly populated habitats, we demonstrated that control actions substantially reduced the rate of population increase over the four‐month study period. This suggests that control may be an effective localized strategy to suppress eastern gambusia densities. There was however, no evidence of any response to the removal actions by any of the three sympatric fish species investigated – carp gudgeon (Hypseleotris spp.), Australian smelt (Retropinna semoni) and the invasive common carp (Cyprinus carpio). These results support previous work which suggests that the flexible life‐history strategies and behavioural traits of all three species allow co‐existence with eastern gambusia. The study highlights the importance of understanding the potential outcomes of control options which is particularly pertinent for established aquatic invasive species where information on control effectiveness, population dynamics and/or ecosystem response is currently lacking.     

Source–sink dynamics explain the distribution and persistence of an invasive population of common carp across a model Midwestern watershed

Source–sink theory is an ecological framework that describes how site and habitat-specific demographic rates and patch connectivity can explain population structure and persistence across heterogeneous landscapes. Although commonly used in conservation planning, source–sink theory has rarely been applied to the management of invasive species. This study tested whether the common carp, one of the world’s most invasive species, exhibits source–sink dynamics in a representative watershed in the Upper Mississippi River Basin comprised of a dozen interconnected ponds and lakes. To test for source–sink population structure, we used standard fish sampling techniques, tagging, and genetic assignment methods to describe habitat-specific recruitment rates and dispersal. Five years of sampling revealed that while adult carp were found across the entire watershed, reproductive success (the presence of young carp) was restricted to shallow ponds. Additionally, nearly a third of the carp tagged in a representative pond dispersed into the connected deeper lakes, suggesting that ponds in this system serve as sources and lakes as sinks. This possibility was confirmed by microsatellite analysis of carp tissue samples (n = 1041) which revealed the presence of two distinct strains of carp cohabitating in the lakes, whose natal origins could be traced back to one of two pond systems, with many adult carp attempting to migrate back into these natal ponds to spawn. We conclude that the distribution and persistence of invasive carp in complex interconnected systems may often be driven by source–sink dynamics and that their populations could be controlled by suppressing reproduction in source habitats or by disrupting dispersal pathways, instead of culling individuals from sink habitats.     

Impacts of an invasive virus (CyHV-3) on established invasive populations of common carp (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyprinus carpio</Emphasis>) in North America

The effects of invasive pathogens on wild fish and fish communities generally are not well documented. We compiled information on the impacts of mass mortality events due to Cyprinid Herpesvirus-3 (CyHV-3), otherwise known as Koi Herpesvirus, on wild North American populations of the invasive cyprinid, Cyprinus carpio (common carp), based on our personal experiences, discussions with North American fish ecologists and virologists, a detailed survey of technical and popular publications and a web search. We found evidence of 17 mass die-offs of carp due to CyHV-3 in North America since 2004, for 7 of which we were able to obtain information about carp before and after the events. For 6 of the events, effects of the die-offs on carp population indices appeared to be slight. Carp size-frequency distributions before and after the well-documented 2007/08 event in Ontario were also not conspicuously different. The exceptional event was at Blue Springs Lake, Missouri, in 2012, at which we estimate 65% of the carp present died as a result of CyHV-3 infections and carp abundance continues to decline. Why Blue Springs Lake differs from other events in North America is not clear. Overall, carp die-offs due to CyHV-3 in North America (1) confirm laboratory studies that only common carp are affected, (2) are of brief duration (3–6 weeks), (3) are not repeated in subsequent years and (4) cause much lower mortality (with the exception of Blue Springs Lake) than previously reported for carp in aquaculture facilities or in the laboratory. In terms of both wild carp and their effects on aquatic communities, the short and long-term effects of most die-offs appear to be slight. These features could have implications for the effectiveness of the proposed use of CyHV-3 to reduce feral carp populations in Australia.     

Biological control of invasive apple snails by two species of carp: Effects on non-target species matter

Molluscivorous fish, especially carp, have been adopted as bio-control agents of the invasive apple snail Pomacea canaliculata, but previous studies have focused on their effectiveness, with little attention paid to their undesirable effects on non-target plants and animals. We conducted an 8-week mesocosm study to compare the effectiveness of two indigenous fish, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus), in removing P. canaliculata, and their potential side effects on macrophytes and non-target mollusks in a freshwater wetland. Three species of macrophytes and a community of mollusks in the wetland sediment were enclosed in 1 × 1 × 1 m enclosures either with apple snails (AS), with apple snails and common carp (AS + CC), with apple snails and black carp (AS + BC), or without apple snails and fish. Both species of carp were effective predators of P. canaliculata, removing most of the individuals in the enclosures except a few that were too big to fit into their mouth. By reducing apple snail population, black carp reduced grazing of apple snail on macrophytes. In contrast, although common carp controlled apple snail population, it did not reduce overall loss in plant biomass as the fish might also fed on macrophytes. Both species of carp preyed on non-target mollusks. Application of bio-control agents in invasive species management needs to consider their effects on both the pest and non-target plants and animals. Adoption of common and/or black carp to control apple snail populations thus depends on the weight given to their effectiveness and subtle different effects on non-target organisms by wetland management authority.     

Carp (Cyprinus carpio) as a powerful invader in Australian waterways

1. The invasion of carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in Australia illustrates how quickly an introduced fish species can spread and dominate fish communities. This species has become the most abundant large freshwater fish in south‐east Australia, now distributed over more than 1 million km². 2. Carp exhibit most of the traits predicted for a successful invasive fish species. In addition, degradation of aquatic environments in south‐east Australia has given them a relative advantage over native species. 3. Derivation of relative measures of 13 species‐specific attributes allowed a quantitative comparison between carp and abundant native fish species across five major Australian drainage divisions. In four of six geographical regions analysed, carp differed clearly from native species in their behaviour, resource use and population dynamics. 4. Climate matching was used to predict future range expansion of carp in Australia. All Australian surface waters appear to be climatically suitable for carp. 5. This assessment strongly reinforces the need for immediate management of carp in Australia to include targeted control of human‐assisted dispersal, such as use of carp as bait by anglers, distribution to new locations by anglers and the use of the ‘Koi’ strain in the aquarium industry. 6. Given their historical spread, dispersal mechanisms and ecological requirements, the expansion of carp across most of the remainder of Australia is to be expected.     

Stock collapse and its effect on species interactions: Cod and herring in the Norwegian‐Barents Seas system as an example

Both the Norwegian Spring Spawning herring (Clupea harengus) and the Northeast Arctic (NEA) cod (Gadus morhua) are examples of strong stock reduction and decline of the associated fisheries due to overfishing followed by a recovery. Cod and herring are both part of the Barents Sea ecosystem, which has experienced major warming events in the early (1920–1940) and late 20th century. While the collapse or near collapse of these stocks seems to be linked to an instability created by overfishing and climate, the difference of population dynamics before and after is not fully understood. In particular, it is unclear how the changes in population dynamics before and after the collapses are associated with biotic interactions. The combination of the availability of unique long‐term time series for herring and cod makes it a well‐suited study system to investigate the effects of collapse. We examine how species interactions may differently affect the herring and cod population dynamic before and after a collapse. Particularly we explore, using a GAM modeling approach, how herring could affect cod and vice versa. We found that the effect of cod biomass on herring that was generally positive (i.e., covariation) but the effect became negative after the collapse (i.e., predation or competition). Likewise a change occurred for the cod, the juvenile herring biomass that had no effect before the collapse had a negative effect after. Our results indicate that the population collapses may alter the inter‐specific interactions and response to abiotic environmental changes. While the stocks are at similar abundance levels before and after the collapses, the system is potentially different in its functioning and may require different management action.     

Do invasive freshwater fish species grow better when they are invasive?

A frequent assumption in invasion ecology is that invasive species have enhanced growth rates in their invasive ranges. However, invasions frequently occur in sub‐tropical and tropical environments where growth could be higher simply due to climatic conditions rather than novel habitat. In this study, a meta‐analysis of growth rates (length‐at‐age data) was completed for six invasive freshwater fish species: common carp Cyprinus carpio, largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides, brown trout Salmo trutta, brown bullhead Ictalurus nebulosus, flathead catfish Pylodictis olivaris and northern snakehead Channa argus. Significant effects of climate on growth were observed for all species except common carp, and following normalization of growth for climate effects, a range of growth responses between native and invasive populations were revealed. Two species (brown trout, flathead catfish) showed significantly increased growth rates in invasive compared to native ranges, but two species (common carp, largemouth bass) showed significantly faster growth in native ranges, and two other species (northern snakehead, brown bullhead) showed no difference in growth rates. No species showed both significantly enhanced growth rates and initial sizes in invasive compared to native ranges. Using the comparative method, countergradient growth variations were apparent for all species within their native ranges and for all but one species in invasive ranges. Invasive populations of freshwater fish do not always grow faster when invasive and future studies need to consider growth covariates (e.g. climate and countergradient growth) prior to comparing life‐history differences between invasive and native populations.     

DNA metabarcoding for dietary analysis of Holland's carp (Spinibarbus hollandi) to evaluate the threat to native fishes in Taiwan

DNA metabarcoding analysis for gut contents has been shown to compensate the disadvantage of traditionally morphological identification and offer higher resolution of prey items in an efficient way. Holland's carp (Spinibarbus hollandi) is a freshwater fish native to southern and eastern Taiwan. In the past two decades, this species has been introduced as a sport fish into the river basins of northern and western Taiwan. The large body size and active predation make it a potential threat for native fishes, but which native species are preyed by Holland's carp remains unknown. In this study, the diet from the gut contents of Holland's carp from the Zhonggang River, an invaded basin, was examined using DNA metabarcoding from 51 individuals and by morphological examinations on 140 samples. Detritus of plants were found in 83.6% samples (117 individuals). Twenty fish species of seven families were identified by DNA metabarcoding, including species of all water layers. Taiwan torrent carp (Acrossocheilus paradoxus) and Rhinogobius spp. are the most common prey items. Based on the results of this study, Holland's carp is considered an opportunistic omnivore because of its diverse diet items, which is an important trait for successful invasive fish species. The population decline of Opsariichthys pachycephalus may not result from the invasion of Holland's carps. Nonetheless, the time lag between successful invasion and the samplings of this study may be a concern because the population size of O. pachycephalus may have declined and become difficult to prey. The Holland's carps consumed the least species in winter; nonetheless, the occurrence frequencies of preys among seasons were not significantly different probably because of limited temperature fluctuation. The smallest Holland's carps consumed the least prey species compared to other size categories, similar to the relationship of prey species number to size of invasive largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides).     

Modelling bioenergetic and population-level impacts of invasive bigheaded carps (Hypophthalmichthys spp.) on native paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) in backwaters of the lower Mississippi River

1. While invasions of large rivers by exotic fish species are well documented, assessing actual or potential impacts on native species is a challenge. Rapid assessments may be possible through the application of a combination of bioenergetic and population dynamic models.
2. Paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) is a native species in the central USA with a history of population decline due to waterway development and overharvesting for roe. It is not known whether paddlefish are impacted by resource competition from invasive bigheaded carp populations, including silver (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis), which have expanded dramatically in the Mississippi River.
3. We used bioenergetic models to project the potential impact of invasive silver and bighead carp on zooplankton density and paddlefish somatic growth in backwater habitat. Bioenergetic outputs were translated to impacts on fecundity, becoming inputs for 50-year metapopulation simulations of backwater habitat connected to the main-stem Mississippi River by episodic flood events.
4. Competition with carp reduced growth and increased the risk of population decline for paddlefish. Impacts increased disproportionately with increased carp abundance and were further exacerbated in scenarios with increased diet overlap or decreased zooplankton abundance.
5. We also analysed paddlefish condition data collected at sites near the lower Mississippi River with varying histories of carp invasion. These data give credence to the bioenergetic model output; paddlefish had reduced body condition at sites with long-established, high-density carp populations.
6. We conclude that invasive bigheaded carps have great potential to reduce paddlefish growth, fecundity, and abundance. The pairing of bioenergetics and population models is likely to be broadly useful in assessing the risks posed by other invasive species.

     

中国南部池养幼鲩寄生鱊头槽绦虫的种群动态

本项目研究池塘养殖的鲩 (草 )鱼体内寄生的头槽绦虫 (B .acheilognathi)的种群动态。于 1 986、1 9 87和 1 998三年内分别观察 0、Ⅰ龄幼鲩及Ⅱ龄商品鲩感染的情况。 0龄及Ⅰ龄越冬鲩的绦虫种群由初染至收敛周期为 1年 ,Ⅱ龄鲩不感染 ,冬季高感染率导致早春水温在 2 0 4℃的感染高峰 ,感染强度持续数月 ,6月达到 2 4 3虫 /鱼。未感染的 0及Ⅰ龄幼鲩在 2、 3月分别引进放养感染了的越冬Ⅰ龄鲩的池塘。1个月后 ,感染率达到 93 1 %～ 96 9% ,8至 9月感染率迅速下降 ,1 0月又稍升高。 1 986和 1 987年的 4～8月 ,绦虫的分布 (S2 / X) >1 ,为聚集分布 ,体长 <1cm的幼虫在种群结构中占优势 ,为 97 2 %～98 2 % ,1 1月幼虫数目下降 ,大孕节绦虫随之出现 ,1 2月大孕节绦虫仅少数存留或全部消失。试验结果为消灭鲩鱼绦虫病提供了可靠依据。     

Population genetics of pike,genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Esox</Emphasis> (Actinopterygii,Esocidae), in Northern Italy: evidence for mosaic distribution of native,exotic and introgressed populations

Biomanipulation, or management actions aimed to structure biological communities to achieve certain goals, has often been used in the restoration of aquatic ecosystems. In 2000, The Nature Conservancy acquired the Emiquon Preserve, which included two former Illinois River floodplain lakes, to restore these ecosystems. Restoration included stocking to establish a native fish community commensurate with historical records. Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides, bass) were also introduced to control poor water clarity and invasive common carp (Cyprinus carpio, carp). We summarized fish community characteristics and tested whether bass contributed to water clarity maintenance and limited carp during 2007–2014. The fish community was dominated by species stocked in greatest abundance, 13 of 32 species initially stocked have not been collected, and species diversity increased. No carp were observed in bass diets, water clarity declined significantly, and carp relative abundance increased. Increasing water levels during 2008–2009 diffused bass predation potential upon zooplanktivorous fishes and carp and weakened potential trophic cascading interactions. Our findings suggest that water level management, greater stocking of piscivores to maintain predator densities, prevention of gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) introduction, and/or a more diverse fish community including other native piscivores may be required to achieve long-term restoration goals.     

Temporal dynamics of a local fish community are strongly affected by immigration from the surrounding metacommunity

A 5‐year time series of annual censuses was collected from a large floodplain lake to determine how dynamics of the local fish community were affected by changes in hydrological connectivity with the surrounding metacommunity. The lake was disconnected from the metacommunity for 1 year prior to our study and remained disconnected until 3 months before our third annual census, when a flood reconnected the lake to the metacommunity. We determined how changes in connectivity affected temporal dynamics of (1) local community composition and (2) the population composition, condition, and growth of catfish, to shed light on how immigration of other species might affect local population dynamics. Before reconnection, the community was likely shaped by interactions between the local environment and species traits. The reconnection caused significant immigration and change in community composition and correlated with a significant and abrupt decline in catfish condition, growth, and abundance; effects likely due to the immigration of a competitor with a similar trophic niche: carp. The community was slow to return to its preconnection state, which may be due to dispersal traits of the fishes, and a time‐lag in the recovery of the local catfish population following transient intensification of species interactions. The dynamics observed were concordant with the species sorting and mass‐effects perspectives of metacommunity theory. Floods cause episodic dispersal in floodplain fish metacommunities, and so, flood frequency determines the relative importance of regional and local processes. Local processes may be particularly important to certain species, but these species may need sufficient time between floods for population increase, before the next flood‐induced dispersal episode brings competitors and predators that might cause population decline. Accordingly, species coexistence in these metacommunities may be facilitated by spatiotemporal storage effects, which may in turn be regulated by flood frequency.     

Age determination in common carp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyprinus carpio</Emphasis>: history,relative utility of ageing structures,precision and accuracy

The common carp Cyprinus carpio is one of the most widely-distributed freshwater fishes in the world. Due to its value for conservation and fisheries in several native/translocated areas of distribution and its detrimental effects on the aquatic ecosystem in most invasive areas, robust age-based population dynamics models are required for successful management of this species. The present study provides a global review of age determination in carp, including a historical account of ageing methods, an assessment of the relative utility of ageing structures, and an evaluation of precision and accuracy (i.e. validation) of age estimates. Historically, scales were by far the most widely-employed structure, followed by the operculum, otolith, dorsal spine, vertebra and fin ray. However, in countries where carp is categorised as ‘high risk’ of impact, use of alternative structures to the scale was predominant. Causal criteria analysis showed scales and opercula to provide inconsistent evidence for successful annulus identification/counting, whereas consistent evidence was found for otoliths, dorsal spines, vertebrae and (pectoral) fin rays. Precision was always above reference thresholds for scales, whereas for otoliths, dorsal spines and fin rays was in several cases below. Accuracy was addressed sporadically and mostly in high-risk countries. It is suggested that dorsal spines or pectoral fin rays should be used in lieu of scales as non-lethal ageing structures, and otoliths (or vertebrae, pending more research) otherwise, and that validation should always be attempted as part of the set-up of more appropriate ageing protocols and use of correct terminology.     

Cytoplasmic impact on cross-genus cloned fish derived from transgenic common carp (Cyprinus carpio) nuclei and goldfish (Carassius auratus) enucleated eggs

In previous studies of nuclear transplantation, most cloned animals were obtained by intraspecies nuclear transfer and are phenotypically identical to their nuclear donors; furthermore, there was no further report on successful fish cloning since the report of cloned zebrafish. Here we report the production of seven cross-genus cloned fish by transferring nuclei from transgenic common carp into enucleated eggs of goldfish. Nuclear genomes of the cloned fish were exclusively derived from the nuclear donor species, common carp, whereas the mitochondrial DNA from the donor carp gradually disappeared during the development of nuclear transfer (NT) embryos. The somite development process and somite number of nuclear transplants were consistent with the recipient species, goldfish, rather than the nuclear donor species, common carp. This resulted in a long-lasting effect on the vertebral numbers of the cloned fish, which belonged to the range of goldfish. These demonstrate that fish egg cytoplasm not only can support the development driven by transplanted nuclei from a distantly related species at the genus scale but also can modulate development of the nuclear transplants.