Plant Functional Group Diversity as a Mechanism for Invasion Resistance

A commonly cited mechanism for invasion resistance is more complete resource use by diverse plant assemblages with maximum niche complementarity. We investigated the invasion resistance of several plant functional groups against the nonindigenous forb Spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa). The study consisted of a factorial combination of seven functional group removals (groups singularly or in combination) and two C. maculosa treatments (addition vs. no addition) applied in a randomized complete block design replicated four times at each of two sites. We quantified aboveground plant material nutrient concentration and uptake (concentration × biomass) by indigenous functional groups: grasses, shallow‐rooted forbs, deep‐rooted forbs, spikemoss, and the nonindigenous invader C. maculosa. In 2001, C. maculosa density depended upon which functional groups were removed. The highest C. maculosa densities occurred where all vegetation or all forbs were removed. Centaurea maculosa densities were the lowest in plots where nothing, shallow‐rooted forbs, deep‐rooted forbs, grasses, or spikemoss were removed. Functional group biomass was also collected and analyzed for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulphur. Based on covariate analyses, postremoval indigenous plot biomass did not relate to invasion by C. maculosa. Analysis of variance indicated that C. maculosa tissue nutrient percentage and net nutrient uptake were most similar to indigenous forb functional groups. Our study suggests that establishing and maintaining a diversity of plant functional groups within the plant community enhances resistance to invasion. Indigenous plants of functionally similar groups as an invader may be particularly important in invasion resistance.     

Plant Chitinases and Their Roles in Resistance to Fungal Diseases

Chitinases are enzymes that hydrolyze the N-acetylglucosamine polymer chitin, and they occur in diverse plant tissues over a broad range of crop and noncrop species. The enzymes may be expressed constitutively at low levels but are dramatically enhanced by numerous abiotic agents (ethylene, salicylic acid, salt solutions, ozone, UV light) and by biotic factors (fungi, bacteria, viruses, viroids, fungal cell wall components, and oligosaccharides). Different classes of plant chitinases are distinguishable by molecular, biochemical, and physicochemical criteria. Thus, plant chitinases may differ in substrate-binding characteristics, localization within the cell, and specific activities. Because chitin is a structural component of the cell wall of many phytopathogenic fungi, extensive research has been conducted to determine whether plant chitinases have a role in defense against fungal diseases. Plant chitinases have different degrees of antifungal activity to several fungi in vitro. In vivo, although rapid accumulation and high levels of chitinases (together with numerous other pathogenesis-related proteins) occur in resistant tissues expressing a hypersensitive reaction, high levels also can occur in susceptible tissues. Expression of cloned chitinase genes in transgenic plants has provided further evidence for their role in plant defense. The level of protection observed in these plants is variable and may be influenced by the specific activity of the enzyme, its localization and concentration within the cell, the characteristics of the fungal pathogen, and the nature of the host-pathogen interaction. The expression of chitinase in combination with one or several different antifungal proteins should have a greater effect on reducing disease development, given the complexities of fungal-plant cell interactions and resistance responses in plants. The effects of plant chitinases on nematode development in vitro and in vivo are worthy of investigation.     

Macromolecules Released by a Plant Growth-promoting Rhizobacterium as Elicitors of Systemic Resistance in Tomato to Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens

One of 500 rhizobacteria isolated from soil, rhizosphere and rhizoplane of healthy tomato plants was previously selected in laboratory, greenhouse and field tests as a good inducer of systemic resistance. This plant growth‐promoting rhizobacterium (PGPR) was identified as Bacillus cereus by fatty‐acid analysis. Bacillus cereus bacterial cells were removed from liquid culture by centrifugation and the supernatant repeatedly dialyzed (cut‐off = 12 000 daltons) against distilled water. Dialysates applied to roots protected tomato plants against leaf fungal and bacterial pathogens, evidence that macromolecules synthesized by the PGPR and released into the environment act as elicitors of systemic resistance.     

Role of the Fungal Cell Wall in Pathogenesis and Antifungal Resistance

Study of the fungal cell wall is currently an area of very active research. The relevance of the fungal cell wall for cell survival, and pathogenicity has been well established. The view of the cell wall as a tough and impenetrable structure has been left behind, and it is now conceived as a plastic shield that undergoes structural changes depending on the surrounding environmental conditions and morphological states. The fungal cell wall is also the source of most of the pathogen-associated molecular patterns that immune cells recognize, and thus facilitates establishment of a protective antifungal immunity. Paradoxically, fungi, through their cell wall, possess disguising mechanisms to avoid immune recognition. This review gathers the current knowledge about the cell wall of Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus and Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, stressing the importance of the fungal cell wall for pathogenesis, immune recognition, and as a source of targets for antifungal drugs.     

The Immunoregulatory Effects of Endoglucanase Preparations on Plant Resistance to Fungal Infections

The effects of enzymatic preparations—pectomacerin, hemicellulase, andTrichoderma viride 13/10 cellulase—on plant immunological status were studied using two pathosystems, carrot root–white rot agent (Sclerotinia libertiana) and carrot root–black rot agent (Rhizopus nigricans) as examples. It was demonstrated that these preparations reduced the plant damage by infections, namely, decreased the permeability of cell membranes in the infected tissue and stimulated its defense responses, which were expressed as a stable elevation in the content of phenolic compounds and formation of tissue protective barriers.     

植物抗病毒分子机制的研究进展

植物在进化过程中为微生物提供了丰富的物质环境,微生物的生存依赖于植物的生物合成和产生能量的能力.有近450种植物致病病毒,可导致一系列的疾病.但植物不是被动地面对病毒的攻击,而是进化了精细而有效的防御机制来抵抗、限制或损害病毒的感染.植物抗病基因(R-gene)可以抵抗包括病毒在内的多种病原体.由特定病毒而引发的防御反应是先天固有的,而且研究人员已经鉴定了与这种防御反应相关的细胞学和生理学特性.作为抵抗外来核酸(包括病毒)的重要细胞防御途径,RNA沉默近来获得了显著性的研究进展.在植物中这些途径的协同作用有效地防御了病毒的感染.     

植物抗菌物病害的遗传工程研究进展

在人类认识的大约10万种菌物中,绝大多数为腐生型菌物,其中约10%能在植物上寄生,少数能引起植物病害。虽然相对来说引起植物病害的菌物种类较少,但对农业及社会造成重大影响的植物病害仍是菌物病害。历史上,由于菌物病害大流行而导致农业绝产、社会动荡的残酷事例屡见记载,最典型的例子当属上个世纪(1845-1860)在爱尔兰发生的马铃薯晚疫病大流行,这次大流行导致100万人饥饿,并迫使另外100万人移民至北美;...     

Host-Pathogen Interactions : XXXIII. A Plant Protein Converts a Fungal Pathogenesis Factor into an Elicitor of Plant Defense Responses

This paper describes the effect of a plant-derived polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP) on the activity of endopolygalacturonases isolated from fungi. PGIP's effect on endopolygalacturonases is to enhance the production of oligogalacturonides that are active as elicitors of phytoalexin (antibiotic) accumulation and other defense reactions in plants. Only oligogalacturonides with a degree of polymerization higher than nine are able to elicit phytoalexin synthesis in soybean cotyledons. In the absence of PGIP, a 1-minute exposure of polygalacturonic acid to endopolygalacturonase resulted in the production of elicitor-active oligogalacturonides. However, the enzyme depolymerized essentially all of the polygalacturonic acid substrate to elicitor-inactive oligogalacturonides within 15 minutes. When the digestion of polygalacturonic acid was carried out with the same amount of enzyme but in the presence of excess PGIP, the rate of production of elicitor-active oligogalacturonides was dramatically altered. The amount of elicitor-active oligogalacturonide steadily increased for 24 hours. It was only after about 48 hours that the enzyme converted the polygalacturonic acid into short, elicitor-inactive oligomers. PGIP is a specific, reversible, saturable, high-affinity receptor for endopolygalacturonase. Formation of the PGIP-endopolygalacturonase complex results in increased concentrations of oligogalacturonides that activate plant defense responses. The interaction of the plant-derived PGIP with fungal endopolygalacturonases may be a mechanism by which plants convert endopolygalacturonase, a factor important for the virulence of pathogens, into a factor that elicits plant defense mechanisms.     

Resistance Mechanism of Cultured Plant Cells to Tobacco Mosaic Virus

In somaclonal tissues obtained from systemically TMV-infected tobacco plants, a relation between changes of TMV amounts and the callus growth was examined. The culture medium was suitable for maintaining a constant concentration of TMV as well as active callus growth. By using the shake-culture method, somaclonal tissues were separated into two classes on the basis of callus sizes. In large callus tissues, TMV amounts were constant during subculturing but the tissues did not either grow or release the newly divided cells after the last subculture. On the other hand, smaller callus tissues grew markedly and the TMV amounts were conspicuously lowered. After shake-subculture of smaller tissues, they were successfully regenerated to plantlets. None of the plantlets expressed any mosaic symptoms, while plantlets from the original somaclones showed severe mosaic symptoms of TMV in leaflets. Thus, the present report describes the successful production of virus-free plantlets from infected somaclonal callus cultures.     

The Response of Transpiration Resistance to Leaf Temperature as a Desiccation Resistance Mechanism in Tree Seedlings

Transpiration rate and leaf transfer resistance to water vapor loss were determined under a range of leaf temperatures for Quercus macrocarpa, Q. velutina, Q. alba, Q. rubra, and Acer saccharum. Transfer resistance increased with rising leaf temperatures between 20 and 40°C in all species, but the rate of increase in resistance was greatest in species which normally occupy xeric sites. Increased transfer resistance with rising leaf temperature may be significant in preventing rapid desiccation of leaves under the large evaporative stress imposed by high leaf temperature.     

Resistance and Susceptibility of Plants to Fungal Pathogens

Plants are under continuous threat of infection by pathogens endowed with diverse strategies to colonize their host. Comprehensive biochemical and genetic approaches are now starting to reveal the complex signaling pathways that mediate plant disease resistance. Initiation of defense signaling often involves specific recognition of invading pathogens by the products of specialized host resistance (R) genes. Potential resistance signaling components have been identified by mutational analyses to be required for specific resistance in the model Arabidopsis and some crop species. Strikingly, many of the components share similarity to that of innate immune systems in animals. Evidence is also accumulating that plant pathogens have a number of ways to evade host defenses during the early stages of infection, similar to animal pathogens. These strategies are becoming much better understood in a number of plant–pathogen interactions. In this review, we focus on the current knowledge of host factors that control plant resistance and susceptibility to fungal pathogens. The knowledge accumulated in these studies will serve a fundamental basis for combating diseases in strategic molecular agriculture.     

Pathogenesis of Fungal Infections in Cystic Fibrosis

For a long time, the microbiology of cystic fibrosis has been focussed on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and associated Gram-negative pathogens. An increasing body of evidence has been compiled demonstrating an important role for moulds and yeasts within this complex patient group. Whether or not fungi are active participants, spectators or transient passersby remain to be elucidated. However, functionally, they do appear to play a contributory role in pathogenesis, albeit we do not know if this is a direct or indirect effect. The following review examines some of the key evidence for the role of fungi in CF pathogenesis.     

病毒编码基因介导的植物病毒抗性机理研究进展

根据植物自身病毒编码基因的不同,重点介绍了其病毒抗性机理的研究进展。     

Impaired Transport as a Mechanism of Resistance to Thiopurines in Human T-Lymphoblastic Leukemia Cells

In order to better understand the mechanisms of resistance to thiopurines, we studied two sublines of the MOLT4 T-lymphoblastic leukemia cell line, resistant to 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) and 6-thioguanine (6-TG). We found that the underlying mechanism of resistance in both resistant cell lines was a markedly reduction in initial transport of 6-MP (3- and 5-fold, respectively, in 6-MP- and 6-TG-resistant cells). No significant alteration of activities of hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, thiopurine methyltransferase or inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase, the key enzymes involved in the metabolism of thiopurines was detected. We conclude that defected initial transport of thiopurines by cells may very well explain their resistance to these drugs.     

Chitinolytic Enterobacter agglomerans Antagonistic to Fungal Plant Pathogens

Three Enterobacter agglomerans strains which produce and excrete proteins with chitinolytic activity were found while screening soil-borne bacteria antagonistic to fungal plant pathogens. The chitinolytic activity was induced when the strains were grown in the presence of colloidal chitin as the sole carbon source. It was quantitated by using assays with chromogenic p-nitrophenyl analogs of disaccharide, trisaccharide, and tetrasaccharide derivatives of N-acetylglucosamine. A set of three fluorescent substrates with a 4-methylumbelliferyl group linked by (beta)-1,4 linkage to N-acetylglucosamine mono- or oligosaccharides were used to identify the chitinolytic activities of proteins which had been renatured following their separation by electrophoresis. This study provides the most complete evidence for the presence of a complex of chitinolytic enzymes in Enterobacter strains. Four enzymes were detected: two N-acetyl-(beta)-d-glucosaminidases of 89 and 67 kDa, an endochitinase with an apparent molecular mass of 59 kDa, and a chitobiosidase of 50 kDa. The biocontrol ability of the chitinolytic strains was demonstrated under greenhouse conditions. The bacteria decreased the incidence of disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani in cotton by 64 to 86%. Two Tn5 mutants of one of the isolates, which were deficient in chitinolytic activity, were unable to protect plants against the disease.     

新型真菌源激活蛋白诱导水稻抗病性及其生理机制

为明确新型真菌源激活蛋白对水稻抗病性的诱导作用及其生理机制,研究了激活蛋白对水稻稻瘟病和白叶枯病的诱导抗病性,监测了激活蛋白处理后水稻过氧化物酶（POD）、多酚氧化酶（PPO）、过氧化氢酶（CAT）、超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）活性及过氧化氢（H₂O₂）含量变化。结果表明,1～6 μg·mL^-1激活蛋白对稻瘟病和白叶枯病的诱抗效果分别为45.2%～71.4%和47.6%～66.3%,以6 μg·mL^-1激活蛋白的诱抗效果最好。与对照相比,2 μg·mL^-1激活蛋白处理水稻后3～15 d内不同程度诱导了防御酶POD、PPO和SOD活性,抑制CAT活性,提高H₂O₂含量。新型真菌源激活蛋白能够诱导水稻产生对稻瘟病和白叶枯病的抗病性,其诱导抗性机制与水稻体内的活性氧代谢密切相关。