Influence of habitat features and hunter behavior on white-tailed deer harvest

Sport hunting may help in controlling cervid populations over large areas. As with natural predators, several environmental factors can influence sport harvest. A better understanding of the environmental variables that limit the efficiency of sport hunting could provide guidelines for more efficient wildlife management using hunting. We studied white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunting on a high deer density island where hunting was the sole form of predation. Our objective was to study the behavior of sport hunters and determine the habitat characteristics (e.g., abundance of deer forage, visibility of the deer from the hunter's point of view, and accessibility of the territory to hunters) that are associated with a successful harvest. We collected movements and harvest site location data from 477 hunters equipped with handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) units. Harvest sites were visited and characterized, along with a paired random site, to determine the environmental conditions associated with a successful hunt. We also developed a model to predict the daily number of deer seen by hunters considering weather conditions, hunter characteristics (e.g., age, experience), and date of hunting. We used the mean number of deer seen per hunter per day as a relative index of local density in each hunted territory. At both the site and landscape scales, the combination of visibility and access had a positive effect on the distribution of harvested deer. Habitat types with less visual obstruction from vegetation enabled hunters to see more deer in a given day. At the site scale, harvested deer were located in areas with a lower density of access routes compared to areas where hunters travelled throughout the day. Using an innovative approach of studying hunter behavior with GPS technology, digital maps, and questionnaires, we highlighted the factors associated with hunter success. Our study suggests that habitat characteristics could be modified to increase harvest by improving accessibility and visibility near roads. Creating openings in mature and regenerating forest near access roads could make sport hunting a more efficient management tool, but the potential impact of increased forage availability in forest openings should not be overlooked. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Habitat preferences of ptarmigan hunters in Norway

Hunting for willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus) is a popular recreational activity in Norway, but studies of the hunters are limited. While large game management in Norway is based on sound models and research, management of small game hunters and hunting have not been subject to the same rigour. Compared to the extensive body of knowledge about ptarmigan behaviour and habitat preferences, the knowledge base on ptarmigan hunters is very limited. We surveyed the habitat preferences of 3,056 hunters to identify preferred landscape categories using pictures covering a range of landscape types. We also examined to which extent residence types and forms of hunting were related to habitat preferences. Through factor analysis, we identified three categories of hunting habitat; mountain forest, low alpine and high alpine. Mode of hunting is more important than residence status in terms of preferred habitat. Hunters using dogs preferred mountain forest and low alpine habitats more than hunters without dogs. Hunters without dogs had a higher preference than dog hunters for high alpine habitats. Hunters with mixed modes of hunting have wider habitat preferences. Residence status only affects the perception of the mountain forest habitat. The results may have implications for management as land use and place-based meanings are currently changing in many natural and rural landscapes, and hunting needs to be integrated with other recreational uses.     

An Evaluation of Hunter Self-Monitoring in the Bolivian Chaco

Community wildlife management is being tested across the tropics as a means of promoting the conservation and sustainable use of wildlife resources. Key to successful programs is the effective participation of local hunters and communities in monitoring, planning, decision-making and implementation. We evaluate one method to achieve this participation, namely hunter self-monitoring. Between 1997 and 2000, Izoceño hunters from 22 communities in the Bolivian Chaco have voluntarily participated in monitoring their hunting activities, measuring and recording data on captured animals and hunting methods in personal notebooks. Despite the lack of remuneration, participation exceeds 60% of active hunters. However, the written information and specimens provided are not complete, and are biased according to hunting methods and prey characteristics. Complementary research is essential to answer specific research questions. Nevertheless, hunter self-monitoring serves to raise awareness of wildlife management issues at the communal or indigenous territory level, as evidenced by preliminary actions taken by hunters and communities in the Izozog.     

The optimal foraging theory, crowding and Swedish grouse hunters

Hunters that have options to hunt in different areas should evaluate their previous hunting success when they decide where to hunt. Following optimal foraging theory for non-human predators, we investigated if hunting success and density of other hunters on the hunting area will affect the probability of return to the same area, and if such behavioural changes will result in a higher hunting success compared to hunters that change to a new area. For this purpose, we used detailed information about willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus) hunters on state-owned land in Sweden. We found support for the optimal foraging theory application on grouse hunters’ behavioural changes according to hunting success. The return rate increased with increasing hunting success, and hunters that returned to the same area also increased their success compared to hunters that changed to a new area. Only one third of the hunters returned to the same area the subsequent year. We also found a negative effect of density of hunters in an area on hunters’ return rates and their hunting success, suggesting crowding among Swedish grouse hunters.     

Can recreational hunting contribute to pest mammal control on public land in Australia?

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Attitudes of Missouri Small Game Hunters Toward Nontoxic-Shot Regulations

ABSTRACT Wildlife managers are becoming more concerned about the exposure of birds, in addition to waterfowl, to spent lead shot. Knowledge of hunter attitudes and their acceptance of nontoxic-shot regulations will be important in establishing new regulations. Our objective was to assess the attitudes of small game hunters in Missouri, USA, toward a nontoxic-shot regulation for small game hunting, specifically for mourning doves (Zenaida macroura). Most hunters (71.7–84.8%) opposed additional nontoxic-shot regulations. Hunters from rural areas, hunters with a rural background, hunters who hunt doves, hunters who currently hunt waterfowl, hunters who primarily use private lands, and current upland game hunters were more likely to oppose new regulations. For mourning dove hunting, most small game hunters (81.1%) opposed further restrictions; however, many non-dove hunters (57.1%) expressed no opinion. Because our results demonstrate that most small game hunters and dove hunters in Missouri are decidedly against further nontoxic-shot regulations, any informational and educational programs developed to accompany future policy changes must address their concerns.     

Hunting strategies employed by bird hunters with economic pursuit in the city of Guiyang,Southwest China

Understanding hunter motivations and strategies is of particular importance in regions fraught with wildlife hunting, due to the critical hunter’s role in linking wildlife supply and consumption. However, such information is extremely scarce in China despite the worrisome situation of wildlife hunting. This study documents the techniques, motivations and hunting frequencies of bird hunters who have economic interests in the city of Guiyang, Southwest China, where numerous wild birds have been observed in trade. The data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires given to 50 hunters in a public market between March and July 2015. At least 9 kinds of tools and 10 kinds of techniques have been employed in local bird hunting practices. Up to eight factors have stimulated the collection of wild birds, of which commercial benefit was undoubtedly the most important. Hunting activities were conducted throughout the year, and efficient and low-cost hunting techniques, such as hunting with nets and neck snares were the predominant hunting techniques. The use of bait birds, whistles and bird song recordings was common, with the aim of improving the harvest by finding and attracting target species, highlighting a preference for hunting certain species of birds. The various hunting motivations underscore the complexity of the current hunting issue. Conservation management was discussed by considering the hunting strategies employed and the needs of hunters, as well as the market demand, which highlights the necessity of the combined actions of law enforcement, commercial breeding, social welfare, the development of hunting grounds and environmental education.     

Trapping in predator management: catching the profile of trap users in Sweden

Many populations of wildlife, including large- and medium-sized predators are increasing in Europe. Trapping can be one way to reduce negative impacts of predators on human interests, such as game species and threatened species, but there is little knowledge of trap usage and motivation behind it. We used a mail survey in Sweden (n?=?3,886 respondents) to compare predator trappers with hunters who used other methods to kill predators, and with other hunters who did not kill predators, in regard to sociodemographics, beliefs, behaviors, and constraints. During 12 months prior to the survey 19 % of respondents had trapped any small- or medium-sized predator, while 15 % of respondents had trapped and 55 % had hunted (without using traps) red fox (Vulpes vulpes), European badger (Meles meles), or corvid birds. Reducing predator numbers was an important reason for hunting predators with traps. Of predator trappers, 97 % had hunted species that were potentially prey of the targeted predators (e.g., roe deer [Capreolus capreolus], hare [Lepus spp.], and grouse), 94 % believed that there were too many red foxes, badgers, or corvids on their main hunting ground, and 64 % believed it to be very important to reduce predator numbers to benefit other game species. We conclude that the use of traps is widespread among Swedish hunters, and that increasing wildlife populations, increased presence of wildlife in urban areas, and management of invasive species calls for effective management actions, of which trapping can be one.     

Adaptive management of sika deer populations in Hokkaido, Japan: theory and practice

We investigated the utility of adaptive management (AM) in wildlife management, reviewing our experiences in applying AM to overabundant sika deer (Cervus nippon) populations in Hokkaido, Japan. The management goals of our program were: (1) to maintain the population at moderate density levels preventing population irruption, (2) to reduce damage to crops and forests, and (3) to sustain a moderate yield of hunting without endangering the population. Because of significant uncertainty in biological and environmental parameters, we designed a “feedback” management program based on controlling hunting pressure. Three threshold levels of relative population size and four levels of hunting pressure were configured, with a choice of four corresponding management actions. Under this program, the Hokkaido Government has been promoting aggressive female culling to reduce the sika deer population since 1998. We devised a harvest-based estimation for population size using relative population size and the number of deer harvested, and found that the 1993 population size (originally estimated by extrapolation of aerial surveys) had been underestimated. To reduce observation errors, a harvest-based Bayesian estimation was developed and the 1993 population estimate was again revised. Analyses of population trends and harvest data demonstrate that hunting is an important large-scale experiment to obtain reliable estimation of population size. A serious side effect of hunting on sika deer was inadvertent lead poisoning of large birds of prey. The prohibition of the use of lead bullets by the Hokkaido Government was successful in reducing the lead poisoning, but the problem still remains. Two case studies on sika population irruption show that the densities set by maximum sustainable yield may be too high to prevent damage to agriculture, forestry, and/or ecosystems. Threshold management based on feedback control is better for ecosystem management. Since volunteer hunters favor higher hunting efficiency in resource management (e.g., venison), it is necessary to support the development of professional hunters for culling operations for ecosystem management, where lower densities of deer should be set for target areas. Hunting as resource management and culling for ecosystem management should be synergistically combined under AM.     

The economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land

Access to lands for hunting is widely recognized as critical to sustaining and developing participation in hunting. Deer hunters comprise a substantial portion of recreational hunters in the United States, and numerous stakeholders benefit from the deer management services provided by hunters on public lands. We estimated the economic value of publicly accessible deer hunting land in Michigan using economic models of hunting destinations for hunters in the archery season and for hunters in the firearm season. We found that the amounts of state-owned hunting land, federally owned hunting land, and publicly accessible, privately owned Commercial Forest Act land are significant (P < 0.001) and positive determinants of hunting destinations. The annual economic value of Michigan's publicly accessible hunting land to archery and firearm deer hunters, beyond hunter expenditures, was estimated to be over $80 million. Access to state-owned land accounted for approximately $50 million in annual economic value to Michigan deer hunters. The average per-acre value of publicly accessible hunting land is greatest in the Southern Lower Peninsula of Michigan, where public access is scarce and the majority of hunters reside. Understanding the economic values hunters derive from publicly accessible hunting lands will enable managers and policy makers to make better decisions when considering policy options that involve reducing or increasing public access. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Hunters and hunting patterns in part of the Kaimanawa Recreational Hunting Area

Abstract

A postal survey of 156 hunters who used the three southeastern-most hunting blocks in the Kaimanawa Recreational Hunting Area (RHA) in 1986 and 1987 achieved a 74% response rate. Comparison of age distributions from this and earlier hunter surveys confirmed an apparent decline in recruitment of young hunters entering the sport during the 1980s. Most hunters had considerable experience (>10 years) and were motivated not only by hunting success but also by the aesthetic value of the outdoor experience. The prime motivation for hunting in the Kaimanawa RHA was the presence of sika deer, and more than two-thirds of the hunters came from outside the Tongariro/Taupo Conservancy. Hunting pressure over current sika deer range in the central North Island may decline if this species continues to disperse naturally or through illegal liberations to other areas. Most (80%) hunters felt that deer densities were acceptable and were satisfied with the present unrestricted hunting system. Fewer than half (41%) the respondents were in favour of active management in the Kaimanawa RHA. Suggestions for active management focused on increasing hunter safety and increasing hunting success rates. Deer densities, as indicated by faecal pellet counts, were inversely related to hunting pressure. Variation in hunting pressure between areas was caused mainly by differences in accessibility. This indicates some potential for manipulation of deer density through options such as increasing access to remote areas or restrictions on hunting pressure.     

Effects of Impact Perception on Acceptance Capacity for White-Tailed Deer

ABSTRACT Wildlife professionals require conceptually sound methods to integrate biological and social insights for management of wildlife. The concept of acceptance capacity has been suggested to stimulate integration, although methods to link measures of acceptance capacity with measures of wildlife populations are not fully developed. To clarify relationships between acceptance capacity, wildlife populations, and human values, we explored effects of stakeholder characteristics and impact perception (the recognized, important effects arising from interactions with wildlife) on acceptance capacity. We used a mail-back questionnaire (n = 2,190 responses) to rural residents of southern Michigan 1) to examine whether 3 commonly identified stakeholder groups (hunters, farmers, and nonhunting, nonfarming rural residents) that share a common landscape also perceive similar suites of impacts and hold comparable acceptance capacities for white-tailed deer, and 2) to develop an explanatory model of acceptance capacity for deer. Comparisons among stakeholder groups revealed differences in perception of impacts resulting from interactions with deer; however, participation in hunting and farming were poor predictors of acceptance capacity for deer. Model selection criteria indicate that total effect of impacts perceived explains a majority of variation in acceptance capacity. We conclude that impact perception is a meaningful concept for integration of human values into management of wildlife populations because impacts relate to effects of current wildlife populations and can lead to management actions that address needs and interests of multiple stakeholder groups in changing landscapes.     

Who Bites the Bullet First? The Susceptibility of Leopards Panthera pardus to Trophy Hunting

Reliable data is fundamentally important for managing large carnivore populations, and vital for informing hunting quota levels if those populations are subject to trophy hunting. Camera-trapping and spoor counts can provide reliable population estimates for many carnivores, but governments typically lack the resources to implement such surveys over the spatial scales required to inform robust quota setting. It may therefore be prudent to shift focus away from estimating population size and instead focus on monitoring population trend. In this paper we assess the susceptibility of African leopards Panthera pardus to trophy hunting. This has management ramifications, particularly if the use of harvest composition is to be explored as a metric of population trend. We explore the susceptibility of different leopard age and sex cohorts to trophy hunting; first by examining their intrinsic susceptibility to encountering trophy hunters using camera-traps as surrogates, and second by assessing their extrinsic susceptibility using photographic questionnaire surveys to determine their attractiveness to hunters. We show that adult male and female leopards share similar incident rates to encountering hunters but adult males are the most susceptible to hunting due to hunter preference for large trophies. In contrast, sub-adult leopards rarely encounter hunters and are the least attractive trophies. We suggest that our findings be used as a foundation for the exploration of a harvest composition scheme in the Kwazulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces where post mortem information is collected from hunted leopards and submitted to the local provincial authorities.     

Influence of Landscape Characteristics on Hunter Space Use and Success

Sport hunting of ungulates is a predominant recreational pursuit and the primary tool for managing their populations in North America and beyond, given its influence on ungulate distributions, social organization, and population performance. Similarly, land management, such as motorized vehicle access, influences ungulate distributions during and outside hunting seasons. Although research on ungulate responses to hunting and land use is widespread, knowledge gaps persist about space use of hunters and what landscape features discriminate among hunt types and between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We used telemetry location data from hunters (n = 341) to estimate space use from 2008–2013 during 3 types of controlled, 5-day hunts for antlered mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus canadensis) in northeastern Oregon, USA: archery elk, rifle deer, and rifle elk. To evaluate space use, we developed utilization distributions for each hunter, created core areas (50% contours) for groups of hunters, and derived several metrics of space-use overlap between successful and unsuccessful hunters. We also modeled predictors of space use using resource utilization functions with beta regression and stepwise model building. Hunter space use was compressed, with even the largest core area (unsuccessful rifle elk hunters) encompassing <16% (1,178 ha) of the area. We found strong similarities in space use of rifle hunters compared to archers, and core areas of successful hunters were markedly smaller than those of unsuccessful hunters (e.g., = 104 ha vs. 681 ha, respectively, for archers). Percentage cover and distance from open roads were the most consistent covariates in the 6 final models (successful vs. unsuccessful for each of 3 hunts) but with different signs. For example, predicted use of archery and rifle elk hunters increased with cover but decreased for rifle deer hunters. Although the same covariates were in the final models for unsuccessful and successful rifle elk hunters, their negligible spatial overlap suggested they sought those features in different locales, a pattern also documented for rifle deer hunters. Our models performed well (Spearman's rank correlation coefficients = 0.99 for 5 of 6 models), reflecting their utility for managing hunters and landscapes. Our results suggest that strategic management of open roads and forest cover can benefit managers seeking to balance hunter opportunity and satisfaction with harvest objectives, especially for species of special concern such as mule deer, and that differences in space use among hunter groups should be accounted for in hunting season designs. © 2021 The Wildlife Society. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.     

Is hunting large carnivores different from hunting ungulates? Some judgments made by Norwegian hunters

The increase in large carnivore populations in a number of European countries causes numerous social conflicts and populations need to be kept at levels that are acceptable to the public. This may eventually require opening up or increasing public hunting of species like bear, wolf, wolverines and lynx as a management strategy. We surveyed a sample of 672 Norwegian hunters to examine how they judged a set of dilemmas associated with hunting carnivores versus ungulates. More than one-half of the sample would like to maintain or increase the current population sizes of the large carnivores (for wolverines: 57.5%; bears: 65.6%; wolves: 66.1%; lynx: 59.6%). A large majority of hunters (85.5%) emphasise not stressing the game over securing success in killing game, require adequate shooting skills (87.7%), linking harvest strategies to ecological principles (79.5%) rather than the level of conflict, and sustainable wildlife populations (95.1%) over optimum economic yield. Carnivore hunting is associated with a stronger preference for quotas based on science rather than local knowledge as well as paying more attention to the conflict level, compared to the judgments made for ungulate hunting. Positive attitudes toward maintaining or increasing carnivore populations are associated with a concern for animal welfare, and faith in scientific information, ecological values and sustainable wildlife populations.     

Hunting Behavior of Chimpanzees at Ngogo,Kibale National Park,Uganda

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) prey on a variety of vertebrates, mostly on red colobus (Procolobus spp.) where the two species are sympatric. Variation across population occurs in hunting frequency and success, in whether hunting is cooperative, i.e., payoffs to individual hunters increase with group size, and in the extent to which hunters coordinate their actions in space and time, and in the impact of hunting on red colobus populations. Also, hunting frequency varies over time within populations, for reasons that are unclear. We present new data on hunting by chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda, and combine them with earlier data (Mitani and Watts, 1999, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 109: 439–454) to examine hunting frequency and success, seasonality, and cooperation. The Ngogo community is the largest and has the most males of any known community. Chimpanzees there mostly hunt red colobus and are much more successful and make many more kills per hunt than at other sites; they kill 6–12% of the red colobus population annually. The number of kills and the offtake of meat per hunt increase with the number of hunters, but per capita meat intake is independent of hunting party size; this suggests that cheating occurs in large parties. Some behavioral cooperation occurs. Hunting success and estimated meat intake vary greatly among males, partly due to dominance rank effects. The high overall success rate leads to relatively high average per capita meat intake despite the large number of consumers. The frequency of hunts and of hunting patrols varies positively with the availability of ripe fruit; this is the first quantitative demonstration of a relationship between hunting frequency and the availability of other food, and implies that the chimpanzees hunt most when they can easily meet energy needs from other sources. We provide the first quantitative support for the argument that variation in canopy structure influences decisions to hunt red colobus because hunts are easier where the canopy is broken.     

Effects of Earn-a-Buck and Special Antlerless-Only Seasons on Wisconsin's Deer Harvests

ABSTRACT Effective management of wildlife populations often requires motivating hunters to harvest sufficient numbers of animals of prescribed sex and age classes to meet management goals. For cervids, it is convenient to design harvest regulations relative to presence (male) or absence (young and female) of antlers because harvest of females has a larger effect on population growth. We used regression techniques to evaluate effects of 2 supplemental hunting programs based on additional days of hunting opportunity and an additional incentive used to complement additional days on harvest of antlered and antlerless deer in Wisconsin, USA. Earn-a-buck regulations, an incentive-based program that requires hunters to register an antlerless deer before being authorized to harvest an antlered deer, were associated with an average increase of 2.04 deer/km² in antlerless harvest and a 0.60 deer/km² decrease in harvest of antlered deer. Providing more opportunity for hunting of antlerless deer in the form of 4- and 8-day supplemental firearm seasons was associated with 1.10 deer/km² and 1.32 deer/km² increases, respectively, in antlerless harvest with trivial (0.02 deer/km² and 0.09 deer/km²) decreases in harvests of antlered deer. Our analysis suggests that extra days of hunting opportunity coupled with the earn-a-buck incentive was 56–88% more effective at increasing antlerless harvest relative to additional days of hunting without the incentive. Use of the earn-a-buck incentive resulted in decreased harvest of antlered deer and was disliked by many hunters. Quantifying these relationships is important for helping managers predict the costs and benefits of various hunting programs.     

Evaluating Indirect Effects of Hunting on Mule Deer Spatial Behavior

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) are widely hunted throughout western North America and are experiencing population declines across much of their range. Consequently, understanding the direct and indirect effects of hunting is important for management of mule deer populations. Managers can influence deer mortality rates through changes in hunting season length or authorized tag numbers. Little is known, however, about how hunting can affect site fidelity patterns and subsequent habitat use and movement patterns of mule deer. Understanding these patterns is especially important for adult females because changes in behavior may influence their ability to acquire resources and ultimately affect their productivity. Between 2008 and 2013, we obtained global positioning system locations for 42 adult female deer at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in northeast Oregon, USA, during 5-day control and treatment periods in which hunters were absent (pre-hunt), present but not actively hunting (scout and post-hunt), and actively hunting male mule deer (hunt) on the landscape. We estimated summer home ranges and 5-day use areas during pre-hunt and hunt periods and calculated overlap metrics across home ranges and use areas to assess site fidelity within and across years. We used step selection functions to evaluate whether female mule deer responded to human hunters by adjusting fine-scale habitat selection and movement patterns during the hunting season compared to the pre-hunt period. Mule deer maintained site fidelity despite disturbance by hunters with 72 ± 4% (SE) within-year overlap between summer home ranges and hunt use areas and 54 ± 7% inter-annual overlap among pre-hunt use areas and 56 ± 7% among hunt use areas. Mule deer diurnal movement rates, when hunters are active on the landscape, were higher during the hunting period versus pre-hunt or scout periods. In contrast, nocturnal movement rates, when hunters are inactive on the landscape, were similar between hunting and non-hunting periods. Additionally, during the hunt, female mule deer hourly movements increased in areas with high greenness values, indicating that mule deer spent less time in areas with more vegetative productivity. Female mule deer maintained consistent habitat selection patterns before and during hunts, selecting areas that offered more forest canopy cover and high levels of vegetative productivity. Our results indicate that deer at Starkey are adopting behavioral strategies in response to hunters by increasing their movement rates and selecting habitat in well-established ranges. Therefore, considering site fidelity behavior in management planning could provide important information about the spatial behavior of animals and potential energetic costs incurred, especially by non-target animals during hunting season. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Diverse University Students Across the United States Reveal Promising Pathways to Hunter Recruitment and Retention

Declining participation in hunting, especially among young adult hunters, affects the ability of state and federal agencies to achieve goals for wildlife management and decreases revenue for conservation. For wildlife agencies hoping to engage diverse audiences in hunter recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R3) efforts, university settings provide unique advantages: they contain millions of young adults who are developmentally primed to explore new activities, and they cultivate a social atmosphere where new identities can flourish. From 2018 to 2020, we surveyed 17,203 undergraduate students at public universities across 22 states in the United States to explore R3 potential on college campuses and assess key demographic, social, and cognitive correlates of past and intended future hunting behavior. After weighting to account for demographic differences between our sample and the larger student population, 29% of students across all states had hunted in the past. Students with previous hunting experience were likely to be white, male, from rural areas or hunting families, and pursuing degrees related to natural resources. When we grouped students into 1 of 4 categories with respect to hunting (i.e., non-hunters [50%], potential hunters [22%], active hunters [26%], and lapsed hunters [3%]), comparisons revealed differences based on demographic attributes, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Compared to active hunters, potential hunters were more likely to be females or racial and ethnic minorities, and less likely to experience social support for hunting. Potential hunters valued game meat and altruistic reasons for hunting, but they faced unique constraints due to lack of hunting knowledge and skills. Findings provide insights for marketing and programming designed to achieve R3 objectives with a focus on university students. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Big game hunting in New Zealand: per capita effort,harvest and expenditure in 2011–2012

Recreational big game hunters make a significant contribution to conservation through kills of deer, pigs, chamois and tahr. New opportunities for managing recreational hunting through the proposed Game Animal Council underscore the need to understand the implications of potential changes in recreational hunting participation and harvests. Based on a survey of hunters' recall over a year, hunters averaged 15.63 (SEM = 0.58) big game hunts per year, spending 30.53 (SEM = 0.85) days hunting and killing 8.92 (SEM = 0.69) big game animals. Hunters commonly targeted several species on a single hunt, with highly skewed distributions for hunter effort and kills. Mean monthly expenditure on big game hunting items was $296.78 (SEM = $8.95). Results demonstrate that big game hunting is a significant activity in New Zealand, but this varies considerably among hunters with a small number responsible for the vast majority of kills. These are important considerations for future big game hunting management.