Antioxidant defense markers modulated by glutathione S-transferase genetic polymorphism: results of lung cancer case–control study

Oxidative stress and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes are suspected to be related to carcinogenesis by different cellular mechanisms. Hence, our study aimed at identifying potential relationships between antioxidant defense parameters measured in blood and glutathione S-transferase (GST) genetic polymorphisms of four GST izoenzymes in lung cancer patients and reference individuals. The case-control study included 404 lung cancer patients and 410 non-cancer subjects as controls, matched by age, gender and place of living (central Poland). In control subjects with GSTM3*A/*A, GSTT1 null, GSTM1 null + GSTT1 null, GSTM3*A/*A + GSTT1 null genotype, glutathione peroxidase activity was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than in controls possessing respective potential protective GST genotypes. Controls with GSTM3*A/*A + GSTP1*B genotype presented significantly higher ceruloplasmin activity (P < 0.05) than GSTM3*B + GSTP1*A/*A carriers. Zinc level was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in controls and cases with GSTP1*B + GSTT1 null genotype and in cases with GSTM1 null + GSTP1*B genotype, when compared with respective potential protective GST genotypes. This case-control study indicates that particular defective GST genotypes may enhance the defense against oxidative stress. The potential relationship between the investigated antioxidative enzymes and microelements, and common functional genetic polymorphism of GST was observed mostly in control subjects.     

Metabolism of chlorambucil by rat liver microsomal glutathione S-transferase

Clinical efficacy of alkylating anticancer drugs, such as chlorambucil (4-[p-[bis [2-chloroethyl] amino] phenyl]-butanoic acid; CHB), is often limited by the emergence of drug resistant tumor cells. Increased glutathione (gamma-glutamylcysteinylglycine; GSH) conjugation (inactivation) of alkylating anticancer drugs due to overexpression of cytosolic glutathione S-transferase (GST) is believed to be an important mechanism in tumor cell resistance to alkylating agents. However, the potential involvement of microsomal GST in the establishment of acquired drug resistance (ADR) to CHB remains uncertain. In our experiments, a combination of lipid chromatography/electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC/ESI/MS) was employed for structural characterization of the resulting conjugates between CHB and GSH. The spontaneous reaction of 1mM CHB with 5 mM GSH at 37 degrees C in aqueous phosphate buffer for 1 h gave primarily the monoglutathionyl derivative, 4-[p-[N-2-chloroethyl, N-2-S-glutathionylethyl] amino]phenyl]-butanoic acid (CHBSG) and the diglutathionyl derivative, 4-[p-[2-S-glutathionylethyl] amino]phenyl]-butanoic acid (CHBSG2) with small amounts of the hydroxy-derivative, 4-[p-[N-2-S-glutathionylethyl, N-2-hydroxyethyl] amino]phenyl]-butanoic acid (CHBSGOH), 4-[p-[bis[2-hydroxyethyl] amino]phenyl]-butanoic acid (CHBOH2), 4-[p-[N-2-chloroethyl, N-2-S-hydroxyethyl]amino]phenyl]-butanoic acid (CHBOH). We demonstrated that rat liver microsomal GST presented a strong catalytic effect on these reactions as determined by the increase of CHBSG2, CHBSGOH and CHBSG and the decrease of CHB. We showed that microsomal GST was activated by CHB in a concentration and time dependent manner. Microsomal GST which was stimulated approximately two-fold with CHB had a stronger catalytic effect. Thus, microsomal GST may play a potential role in the metabolism of CHB in biological membranes, and in the development of ADR.     

Intracellular delivery of glutathione S-transferase into mammalian cells

Protein transduction domains (PTDs) derived from human immunodeficiency virus Tat protein and herpes simplex virus VP22 protein are useful for the delivery of non-membrane-permeating polar or large molecules into living cells. In the course of our study aiming at evaluating PTD, we unexpectedly found that the fluorescent-dye-labeled glutathione S-transferase (GST) from Schistosoma japonicum without known PTDs was delivered into COS7 cells. The intracellular transduction of GST was also observed in HeLa, NIH3T3, and PC12 cells, as well as in hippocampal primary neurons, indicating that a wide range of cell types is permissive for GST transduction. Furthermore, we showed that the immunosuppressive peptide VIVIT fused with GST successfully inhibits NFAT activation. These results suggest that GST is a novel PTD which may be useful in the intracellular delivery of biologically active molecules, such as small-molecule drugs, bioactive peptides, or proteins.     

Structure of the extracellular glutathione S-transferase OvGST1 from the human pathogenic parasite Onchocerca volvulus

Onchocerciasis or river blindness, caused by the filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus, is the world’s second leading infectious cause of blindness. In order to chronically infect the host, O. volvulus has evolved molecular strategies that influence and direct immune responses away from the modes most damaging to it. The O. volvulus GST1 (OvGST1) is a unique glutathione S-transferase (GST) in that it is a glycoprotein and possesses a signal peptide that is cleaved off in the process of maturation. The mature protein starts with a 25-amino-acid extension not present in other GSTs. In all life stages of the filarial worm, it is located directly at the parasite-host interface. Here, the OvGST1 functions as a highly specific glutathione-dependent prostaglandin D synthase (PGDS). The enzyme therefore has the potential to participate in the modulation of immune responses by contributing to the production of parasite-derived prostanoids and restraining the host’s effector responses, making it a tempting target for chemotherapy and vaccine development. Here, we report the crystal structure of the OvGST1 bound to its cofactor glutathione at 2.0 Å resolution. The structure reveals an overall structural homology to the haematopoietic PGDS from vertebrates but, surprisingly, also a large conformational change in the prostaglandin binding pocket. The observed differences reveal a different vicinity of the prostaglandin H₂ binding pocket that demands another prostaglandin H₂ binding mode to that proposed for the vertebrate PGDS. Finally, a putative substrate binding mode for prostaglandin H₂ is postulated based on the observed structural insights.     

Susceptibility to oxidative stress and modulated expression of antioxidant genes in the copper-exposed polychaete Perinereis nuntia

To identify and evaluate potentially useful biomarkers for oxidative stress as early warning indices in the polychaete, Perinereis nuntia, we exposed P. nuntia to copper (Cu) and measured several biomarker enzymes (glutathione S-transferase; GST, glutathione peroxidase; GPx, Metallothionein-like protein; MTLPs, and catalase; CAT) and genes (Pn-GSTs, Pn-CAT, and Pn-MT) with a cellular oxidative index, reactive oxygen species (ROS) level. Accumulated Cu concentrations in P. nuntia increased in a time-dependent manner. Intracellular ROS reached high levels 6h after exposure in P. nuntia with an increase of GST activity and glutathione (GSH) content. Particularly, GSH in polychaetes showed a positive correlation with Cu contents accumulated in P. nuntia. Messenger RNA expressions of GST sigma and GST omega showed relatively high expressions at 50 μg/L of Cu exposure, even though the moderate increase of rest of GST isoforms was also observed. Also regarding long-term exposure, we reared P. nuntia in sediments for 15 days, and found that there was an obvious increase of Pn-GSTs, Pn-CAT, and Pn-MT genes with elevated concentrations of Cu and Cd in polychaete body, compared to initial levels, suggesting that P. nuntia in sediment was affected by metals as well as by other organic pollutants to induce oxidative stress genes and enzymes. These findings suggest that oxidative stress is a potential modulator of defense system of P. nuntia. Several potential biomarker genes are available as early warning signals for environmental biomonitoring.     

Expression of selenocysteine-containing glutathione S-transferase in Escherichia coli

Evolution of a probable 'glutathione-binding ancestor' resulting in a common thioredoxin-fold for glutathione S-transferases and glutathione peroxidases may possibly suggest that a glutathione S-transferase could be engineered into a selenium-containing glutathione S-transferase (seleno-GST), having glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity. Here, we addressed this question by production of such protein. In order to obtain a recombinant seleno-GST produced in Escherichia coli, we introduced a variant bacterial-type selenocysteine insertion sequence (SECIS) element which afforded substitution with selenocysteine for the catalytic Tyr residue in the active site of GST from Schistosoma japonica. Utilizing coexpression with the bacterial selA, selB, and selC genes (encoding selenocysteine synthase, SelB, and tRNA(Sec), respectively) the yield of recombinant seleno-GST was about 2.9 mg/L bacterial culture, concomitant with formation of approximately 85% truncation product as a result of termination of translation at the selenocysteine-encoding UGA codon. The mutations inferred as a result of the introduction of a SECIS element did not affect the glutathione-binding capacity (Km = 53 microM for glutathione as compared to 63 microM for the wild-type enzyme) nor the GST activity (kcat = 14.3 s(-1) vs. 16.6 s(-1)), provided that the catalytic Tyr residue was intact. When this residue was changed to selenocysteine, however, the resulting seleno-GST lost the GST activity. It also failed to display any novel GPX activity towards three standard peroxide substrates (hydrogen peroxide, butyl hydroperoxide or cumene hydroperoxide). These results show that recombinant selenoproteins with internal selenocysteine residues may be heterologously produced in E. coli at sufficient amounts for purification. We also conclude that introduction of a selenocysteine residue into the catalytic site of a glutathione S-transferase is not sufficient to induce GPX activity in spite of a maintained glutathione-binding capacity.     

Schisandra fructus extract ameliorates doxorubicin-induce cytotoxicity in cardiomyocytes: altered gene expression for detoxification enzymes

The effect of Schisandra fructus extract (SFE) on doxorubicin (Dox)-induced cardiotoxicity was investigated in H9c2 cardiomyocytes. Dox, which is an antineoplastic drug known to induce cardiomyopathy possibly through production of reactive oxygen species, induced significant cytotoxicity, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and lipid peroxidation. SFE treatment significantly increased cell survival up to 25%, inhibited intracellular ROS production in a time- and dose-dependent manner, and inhibited lipid peroxidation induced by Dox. In addition, SFE treatment induced expression of cellular glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), which function in the detoxification of xenobiotics, and endogenous toxicants including lipid peoxides. Analyses of 31,100 genes using Affymetrix cDNA microarrays showed that SFE treatment up-regulated expression of genes involved in glutathione metabolism and detoxification [GST theta 1, mu 1, and alpha type 2, heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), and microsomal epoxide hydrolase (mEH)] and energy metabolism [carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT-1), transaldolase, and transketolase]. These data indicated that SFE might increase the resistance to cardiac cell injury by Dox, at least partly, together with altering gene expression, especially induction of phase II detoxification enzymes.     

Molecular dynamics simulations of thioredoxin with S-glutathiolated cysteine-73

Thioredoxin-1 (Trx) becomes inactive when cysteine-73 forms a mixed disulfide with glutathione. This reversible S-glutathiolation may serve as a regulatory mechanism. However, molecular basis for the glutathiolation-induced inhibition has not been established due to the lack of its structure. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed with Gromacs to obtain structural information on glutathiolated Trx. Glutathiolation did not cause a large change in overall shape of Trx although small local changes in the secondary structures were evident. The glutathione moiety was much more flexible than the peptide and spanned a large conformational space. It remained very close to the active site for a large part of the simulation time. Therefore inhibition of Trx by glutathiolation appears to be due to steric hindrance imposed by the covalently attached glutathione.     

A trifunctional enzyme with glutathione S-transferase,glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activity

Superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione S-transferase (GST) and glutathione reductase (GR) play crucial roles in balancing the production and decomposition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in living organisms. These enzymes act cooperatively and synergistically to scavenge ROS, as not one of them can singlehandedly clear all forms of ROS. In order to imitate the synergy of the enzymes, we designed and generated a recombinant protein, which comprises of a Schistosoma japonicum GST (SjGST) and a bifunctional 35-mer peptide with SOD and GPX activities. The engineered protein demonstrated SOD, GPX and GST activities simultaneously. This trifunctional enzyme with SOD, GPX and GST activities is expected to be the best ROS scavenger.     

The sibling species Drosophila melanogaster and Drosophila simulans differ in the expression profile of glutathione S-transferases

Two major forms of glutathione S-transferase are known in Drosophila melanogaster: GST D and GST 2. In the present paper we report the existence of a third major form of glutathione S-transferase in Drosophila simulans. Induction with phenobarbital revealed a different regulation of GST between these species. Despite the fact that these two species are closely related, there was a difference in the expression profile of the enzyme implicated in the detoxification system, suggesting variations in capacity to suit their environment.     

Structure of a Drosophila sigma class glutathione S-transferase reveals a novel active site topography suited for lipid peroxidation products

Insect glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) are grouped in three classes, I, II and recently III; class I (Delta class) enzymes together with class III members are implicated in conferring resistance to insecticides. Class II (Sigma class) GSTs, however, are poorly characterized and their exact biological function remains elusive. Drosophila glutathione S-transferase-2 (GST-2) (DmGSTS1-1) is a class II enzyme previously found associated specifically with the insect indirect flight muscle. It was recently shown that GST-2 exhibits considerable conjugation activity for 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), a lipid peroxidation product, raising the possibility that it has a major anti-oxidant role in the flight muscle. Here, we report the crystal structure of GST-2 at 1.75A resolution. The GST-2 dimer shows the canonical GST fold with glutathione (GSH) ordered in only one of the two binding sites. While the GSH-binding mode is similar to other GST structures, a distinct orientation of helix alpha6 creates a novel electrophilic substrate-binding site (H-site) topography, largely flat and without a prominent hydrophobic-binding pocket, which characterizes the H-sites of other GSTs. The H-site displays directionality in the distribution of charged/polar and hydrophobic residues creating a binding surface that explains the selectivity for amphipolar peroxidation products, with the polar-binding region formed by residues Y208, Y153 and R145 and the hydrophobic-binding region by residues V57, A59, Y211 and the C-terminal V249. A structure-based model of 4-HNE binding is presented. The model suggest that residues Y208, R145 and possibly Y153 may be key residues involved in catalysis.     

MALDI mass sequencing and characterization of filarialglutathione-S-transferase

Glutathione-S-transferase has been detected in the somatic extract and excretory-secretory products of different life stages of Setaria cervi, a bovine filarial parasite. The enzyme was subjected to MALDI-TOF followed by mass spectrometry and the nearest match found was Pleuronectes platessa GST. Molecular mass of the purified enzyme was approximately 26 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE and MALDI-TOF. Setaria cervi GST exhibited high activity towards 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and ethacrynic acid. Kinetic analysis with respect to 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene and glutathione as substrate revealed a K(m) of 2.22 mM and 0.61 mM, respectively. The activity was inhibited significantly by Cibacron blue and alpha-tocopherol.     

Granzyme K inhibits replication of influenza virus through cleaving the nuclear transport complex importin α1/β dimer of infected host cells

The influenza A virus is a causative agent of influenza, which infects human cells and uses host factors to accomplish viral genome replication as part of its life cycle. The nucleoprotein (NP) and PB2 of the influenza virus associate with importin α1 to gain access to the host nucleus through a ternary import complex. Killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity is the primary mechanism of eliminating the influenza virus. Here, we showed that lymphokine-activated killer cells participated in the elimination of the influenza virus. Granzyme (Gzm) K inhibition elevated viral replication in vitro and aggravated viral infection in vivo. We identified that importin α1 and its transport partner protein importin β are physiological substrates of GzmK. Proteolysis of these two substrates wrecked their association to generate the importin α1/β dimer and disrupted transportation of viral NP to the nucleus, leading to inhibition of influenza virus replication.     

A phase II detoxification enzyme inducer from lemongrass: identification of citral and involvement of electrophilic reaction in the enzyme induction

We have developed a simple system for the sensitive detection and measurement of glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity that detoxifies polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using the cultured rat normal liver epithelial cell line, RL34 cells. Citral (3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal) was isolated from the methanol extract of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and identified as a novel inducer of GST. Citral, a mixture of the two stereoisomers geranial and neral, dose- and time-dependently induced the total and pi-class-specific activities of GST. The structure-activity relationship study revealed that geranial, an E-isomer, was mainly responsible for the inducing activity of citral mixture and the aldehyde group conjugated with a trans-double bond is an essential structural factor. The data were consistent with the in vitro observation that both glutathione (GSH) and protein thiol quickly and specifically reacted with the active isomer geranial, but not neral. Pretreatment of the cells with diethyl maleate significantly enhanced not only the basal activity but also the citral-stimulated activity of GST, while pretreatment with N-acetyl-cysteine inhibited it. Moreover, the treatment of RL 34 cells with geranial for 30 min significantly attenuated the intracellular GSH level, while application for 18 h enhanced it. These results strongly suggested that the electrophilic property characterized by the reactivity with intracellular nucleophiles including protein thiol or glutathione (GSH) plays an important role in the induction of GST. The present study also implied the antioxidant role of GST induction by citral in mouse skin, providing a new insight into skin cancer prevention.     

The anti-cancer drug chlorambucil as a substrate for the human polymorphic enzyme glutathione transferase P1-1: kinetic properties and crystallographic characterisation of allelic variants

The commonly used anti-cancer drug chlorambucil is the primary treatment for patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Chlorambucil has been shown to be detoxified by human glutathione transferase Pi (GST P1-1), an enzyme that is often found over-expressed in cancer tissues. The allelic variants of GST P1-1 are associated with differing susceptibilities to leukaemia and differ markedly in their efficiency in catalysing glutathione (GSH) conjugation reactions. Here, we perform detailed kinetic studies of the allelic variants with the aid of three representative co-substrates. We show that the differing catalytic properties of the variants are highly substrate-dependent. We show also that all variants exhibit the same temperature stability in the range 10 °C to 45 °C. We have determined the crystal structures of GST P1-1 in complex with chlorambucil and its GSH conjugate for two of these allelic variants that have different residues at positions 104 and 113. Chlorambucil is found to bind in a non-productive mode to the substrate-binding site (H-site) in the absence of GSH. This result suggests that under certain stress conditions where GSH levels are low, GST P1-1 can inactivate the drug by sequestering it from the surrounding medium. However, in the presence of GSH, chlorambucil binds in the H-site in a productive mode and undergoes a conjugation reaction with GSH present in the crystal. The crystal structure of the GSH-chlorambucil complex bound to the *C variant is identical with the *A variant ruling out the hypothesis that primary structure differences between the variants cause structural changes at the active site. Finally, we show that chlorambucil is a very poor inhibitor of the enzyme in contrast to ethacrynic acid, which binds to the enzyme in a similar fashion but can act as both substrate and inhibitor.     

Effect of copper exposure on GST activity and on the expression of four GSTs under oxidative stress condition in the monogonont rotifer, Brachionus koreanus

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs; EC 2.5.1.18) are major enzymes that function in Phase II detoxification reactions by catalyzing the conjugation of reduced glutathione through cysteine thiol. In this study, we cloned and sequenced four GST genes from the monogonont rotifer Brachionus koreanus. The domain regions of four Bk-GSTs showed a high similarity to those of other species. In addition, to evaluate the potential of GST genes as an early warning signal for oxidative stress, we exposed sublethal concentrations of copper (Cu) to B. koreanus and measured glutathione (GSH) contents and several antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione S-transferase (GST), glutathione peroxidase (GPx; EC 1.11.1.9), and glutathione reductase (GR; EC 1.8.1.7). The reactive oxygen species (ROS) at 12 h and 24 h after copper exposure increased significantly. GSH contents however did not increase significantly and even it decreased at 0.24 mg/L at 12 h. The activities of several antioxidant enzymes, particularly GPx and GR, showed a dramatic increase in 0.24 mg/L of CuCl₂. Messenger RNAs of each Bk-GST showed different patterns of modulations according to GST types, and particularly, Bk-GST-omega, Bk-GST-sigma, and Bk-GST zeta genes were highly sensitive to Cu. These results indicate that Bk-GSTs, functioning as one of the enzymatic defense mechanisms particularly in the early stage of oxidative stress response, were induced by Cu exposure. This also suggests that these genes and related enzymes have a potential as biomarkers for a more sensitive initial stress response.     

南极衣藻谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶基因的表达及其对大肠杆菌低温耐受性的增强作用

谷胱甘肽-S-转移酶(Glutathione-S-transferase, GST, EC2.5.1.18)是生物体内一种重要的抗氧化酶, 为阐明GST在南极衣藻(Chlamydomonas sp. ICE-L)中的具体地位, 采用实时荧光定量PCR对不同温度下南极衣藻的GST基因的表达进行了分析; 并构建了原核表达载体pET28a(+)-GST, 转化至大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中进行诱导表达, 通过平板培养法探讨了重组菌E. coli BL21(pET28a(+)-GST)对低温胁迫的耐受性。结果显示, GST在0℃时表达量最高, 最高可达对照组的两倍多; pET28a(+)-GST重组表达载体在E. coli BL21中实现了高效表达, 且主要以包涵体形式存在, 经HisTrap HP柱分离纯化获得高纯度的GST融合蛋白, 并通过SDS-PAGE及Western blot分析得以验证; 对低温胁迫实验发现南极衣藻GST蛋白的表达可以提高重组菌E. coli BL21对低温的耐受性, 说明GST基因对南极衣藻适应南极低温环境具有重要作用。     

Developmental studies on the Sigma and Delta-1 glutathione transferases of Lucilia cuprina

The glutathione transferases (GSTs) are a large group of enzymes having both detoxication roles and specialist metabolic functions. The present work represents an initial approach to identifying some of these roles by examining the variation of specific members of the family under differing conditions. The GSTs from Lucilia cuprina have been partially purified, members of two families being isolated, by the use of glutathione immobilised on epichlorhydrin-activated Sepharose 6B. The GSTs were separated by 2D SDS-PAGE and characterised by MALDI-TOF analysis of tryptic peptides. The mass fragments were then matched against the corresponding Drosophila melanogaster and Musca domestica sequences. GSTs were identified as coming from only the Sigma and Delta classes. The multiple Delta zones appear all to be derived from the Lucilia GSTD1 isoform. The distribution of these GST proteins has been studied during different developmental stages of the insect. Delta isoforms were present in all developmental stages of L. cuprina. The Sigma GST was not detectable in the egg, was just detectable in the larval and pupal stages and was the major GST isolated in the adult. Sigma and Delta isoforms were both found in all body segments of the insect. Both isoforms appear to undergo extensive post-translational modification. Activities of the two types of protein with model substrates have been determined.     

Cytotoxic effects of 4-octylphenol on fish hepatocytes

The present study was conducted to determine cytotoxic effects of 4-octylphenol (4-OP) on primary cultured hepatocytes of pearl mullet (Alburnus tarichi). Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, malondialdehyde (MDA) level, antioxidant enzymes [superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST)] and glutathione (GSH) content were measured after 24-h exposure to 4-OP. 4-OP caused dose- and time-dependent increases in LDH release. Significant induction of MDA level and decrease in GSH content were found. SOD and GPx activities were decreased while GST activity was increased. These findings suggest that 4-OP leads to cytotoxicity by depressing antioxidant defenses in fish hepatocytes.