Fungal community assembly in soils and roots under plant invasion and nitrogen deposition

Fungal community composition in the Anthropocene is driven by rapid changes in environmental conditions caused by human activities. This study examines the relative importance of two global change drivers – atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition and annual grass invasion – on structuring fungal communities in a California chaparral ecosystem, with emphasis on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. We used molecular markers, functional groupings, generalized linear statistics and joint distribution modeling, to examine how environmental variables structure taxonomic and functional composition of fungal communities. Invasive grasses had a lower richness and relative abundance of symbiotic fungi (both AMF and other fungi) compared to native shrubs. We found a higher richness and abundance of rhizophilic (e.g. Glomeraceae) and edaphophilic (e.g. Gigasporaceae) AMF with increasing soil NO₃. Our findings suggest that invasive persistence may decrease the presence of multiple soil symbionts that native species depend on for pathogen protection and increased access to soil resources.     

Plant species richness,identity and productivity differentially influence key groups of microbes in grassland soils of contrasting fertility

The abundance of microbes in soil is thought to be strongly influenced by plant productivity rather than by plant species richness per se. However, whether this holds true for different microbial groups and under different soil conditions is unresolved. We tested how plant species richness, identity and biomass influence the abundances of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), saprophytic bacteria and fungi, and actinomycetes, in model plant communities in soil of low and high fertility using phospholipid fatty acid analysis. Abundances of saprophytic fungi and bacteria were driven by larger plant biomass in high diversity treatments. In contrast, increased AMF abundance with larger plant species richness was not explained by plant biomass, but responded to plant species identity and was stimulated by Anthoxantum odoratum. Our results indicate that the abundance of saprophytic soil microbes is influenced more by resource quantity, as driven by plant production, while AMF respond more strongly to resource composition, driven by variation in plant species richness and identity. This suggests that AMF abundance in soil is more sensitive to changes in plant species diversity per se and plant species composition than are abundances of saprophytic microbes.     

Tracking plant preference for higher‐quality mycorrhizal symbionts under varying CO2 conditions over multiple generations

The symbiosis between plants and root‐colonizing arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is one of the most ecologically important examples of interspecific cooperation in the world. AM fungi provide benefits to plants; in return plants allocate carbon resources to fungi, preferentially allocating more resources to higher‐quality fungi. However, preferential allocations from plants to symbionts may vary with environmental context, particularly when resource availability affects the relative value of symbiotic services. We ask how differences in atmospheric CO₂‐levels influence root colonization dynamics between AMF species that differ in their quality as symbiotic partners. We find that with increasing CO₂‐conditions and over multiple plant generations, the more beneficial fungal species is able to achieve a relatively higher abundance. This suggests that increasing atmospheric carbon supply enables plants to more effectively allocate carbon to higher‐quality mutualists, and over time helps reduce lower‐quality AM abundance. Our results illustrate how environmental context may affect the extent to which organisms structure interactions with their mutualistic partners and have potential implications for mutualism stability and persistence under global change.     

Global arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity and abundance decreases with soil available phosphorus

Aim

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are widely distributed soil organisms that play critical roles in ecosystem functions. However, little is known about their global distribution and the underlying mechanisms. Here, we aimed to explore distribution pattern and key predictors of AMF diversity and abundance at the global scale.

Location

Global.

Time Period

1987–2022.

Major Taxa Studied

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.

Methods

We investigated the distribution pattern and key predictors of AMF diversity and abundance at the global scale by compiling 654 field studies.

Results

We found that cold climate zones had relatively low AMF diversity. At the ecosystem level, grassland tended to have higher AMF diversity and abundance. Soil available phosphorus (P) and latitude were the most important predictors of AMF diversity. AMF richness and Shannon index decreased with increasing soil available P and latitude. Soil available P and soil pH were the main predictors for global distribution of AMF abundance. AMF colonization rate and spore abundance declined with soil available P and increased with soil pH. Mean annual precipitation was also an important, positive correlate of spore abundance.

Main Conclusions

Our findings highlight soil available P as an important predictor affecting the distribution of AMF diversity and abundance, advancing our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the distribution patterns of mycorrhizal fungal diversity and abundance at the global scale.     

Carbon and nitrogen metabolism in mycorrhizal networks and mycoheterotrophic plants of tropical forests: a stable isotope analysis

Most achlorophyllous mycoheterotrophic (MH) plants obtain carbon (C) from mycorrhizal networks and indirectly exploit nearby autotrophic plants. We compared overlooked tropical rainforest MH plants associating with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to well-reported temperate MH plants associating with ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes. We investigated (13)C and (15)N abundances of MH plants, green plants, and AMF spores in Caribbean rainforests. Whereas temperate MH plants and fungi have higher δ(13)C than canopy trees, these organisms displayed similar δ(13)C values in rainforests, suggesting differences in C exchanges. Although temperate green and MH plants differ in δ(15)N, they display similar (15)N abundances, and likely nitrogen (N) sources, in rainforests. Contrasting with the high N concentrations shared by temperate MH plants and their fungi, rainforest MH plants had lower N concentrations than AMF, suggesting differences in C/N of exchanged nutrients. We provide a framework for isotopic studies on AMF networks and suggest that MH plants in tropical and temperate regions evolved different physiologies to adapt in diverging environments.     

Thermoregulatory traits combine with range shifts to alter the future of montane ant assemblages

Predicting and understanding the biological response to future climate change is a pressing challenge for humanity. In the 21st century, many species will move into higher latitudes and higher elevations as the climate warms. In addition, the relative abundances of species within local assemblages are likely to change. Both effects have implications for how ecosystems function. Few biodiversity forecasts, however, take account of both shifting ranges and changing abundances. We provide a novel analysis predicting the potential changes to assemblage‐level relative abundances in the 21st century. We use an established relationship linking ant abundance and their colour and size traits to temperature and UV‐B to predict future abundance changes. We also predict future temperature driven range shifts and use these to alter the available species pool for our trait‐mediated abundance predictions. We do this across three continents under a low greenhouse gas emissions scenario (RCP2.6) and a business‐as‐usual scenario (RCP8.5). Under RCP2.6, predicted changes to ant assemblages by 2100 are moderate. On average, species richness will increase by 26%, while species composition and relative abundance structure will be 26% and 30% different, respectively, compared with modern assemblages. Under RCP8.5, however, highland assemblages face almost a tripling of species richness and compositional and relative abundance changes of 66% and 77%. Critically, we predict that future assemblages could be reorganized in terms of which species are common and which are rare: future highland assemblages will not simply comprise upslope shifts of modern lowland assemblages. These forecasts reveal the potential for radical change to montane ant assemblages by the end of the 21st century if temperature increases continue. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating trait–environment relationships into future biodiversity predictions. Looking forward, the major challenge is to understand how ecosystem processes will respond to compositional and relative abundance changes.     

Soil aggregation and carbon sequestration are tightly correlated with the abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: results from long-term field experiments

We examined the role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in ecosystems using soil aggregate stability and C and N storage as representative ecosystem processes. We utilized a wide gradient in AMF abundance, obtained through long-term (17 and 6 years) large-scale field manipulations. Burning and N-fertilization increased soil AMF hyphae, glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) pools and water-stable macroaggregates while fungicide applications reduced AMF hyphae, GRSP and water-stable macroaggregates. We found that AMF abundance was a surprisingly dominant factor explaining the vast majority of variability in soil aggregation. This experimental field study, involving long-term diverse management practices of native multispecies prairie communities, invariably showed a close positive correlation between AMF hyphal abundance and soil aggregation, and C and N sequestration. This highly significant linear correlation suggests there are serious consequences to the loss of AMF from ecosystems.     

The role of community and population ecology in applying mycorrhizal fungi for improved food security

The global human population is expected to reach ∼9 billion by 2050. Feeding this many people represents a major challenge requiring global crop yield increases of up to 100%. Microbial symbionts of plants such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) represent a huge, but unrealized resource for improving yields of globally important crops, especially in the tropics. We argue that the application of AMF in agriculture is too simplistic and ignores basic ecological principals. To achieve this challenge, a community and population ecology approach can contribute greatly. First, ecologists could significantly improve our understanding of the determinants of the survival of introduced AMF, the role of adaptability and intraspecific diversity of AMF and whether inoculation has a direct or indirect effect on plant production. Second, we call for extensive metagenomics as well as population genomics studies that are crucial to assess the environmental impact that introduction of non-local AMF may have on native AMF communities and populations. Finally, we plead for an ecologically sound use of AMF in efforts to increase food security at a global scale in a sustainable manner.     

Dynamics of mycorrhizae during development of riparian forests along an unregulated river

In this study, we explore two mycorrhizal groups during development of riparian soils along a freely-flowing river. We provide the first documentation of a shift in abundance between arbuscular mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae during floodplain succession. We used a chronosequence spanning 0–70 yr along a river in northwestern Montana, USA, to test the hypothesis that abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) is greatest in early stages of soil development, and abundance of ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECMF) is greatest later in floodplain succession. We also measured the AMF-mediated process of formation of soil aggregates during site development. AMF colonization of the dominant tree (black cottonwood, Populus trichocarpa ) remained low (<5%), while AMF colonization of understory species was high (45–90%), across the chronosequence. Mycorrhizal inoculum potential (MIP) and hyphal length of AMF in soil peaked within the first 13 yr of succession and then declined. No single variable significantly correlated with AMF abundance, but AMF tended to decline as litter and soil organic matter increased. Density of ectomycorrhizal root tips in soil increased linearly throughout the chronosequence, and ectomycorrhizal colonization of cottonwood roots increased rapidly in early stages of succession. These patterns suggest that ECMF are not limited by dispersal, but rather influenced by abundance of host plants. Formation of water stable aggregates increased rapidly during the first third of the chronosequence, which was the period of greatest AMF abundance in the soil. The peak in AMF infectivity and hyphal length during early succession suggests that regular flooding and establishment of new sites promotes AMF abundance in this ecosystem. Regulation of rivers that eliminates creation of new sites may reduce contributions of AMF to riparian areas.     

Effects of Inoculum Additions in the Presence of a Preestablished Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Community

Communities of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are crucial for promoting plant productivity in most terrestrial systems, including anthropogenically managed ecosystems. Application of AMF inocula has therefore become a widespread practice. It is, however, pertinent to understand the mechanisms that govern AMF community composition and their performance in order to design successful manipulations. Here we assess whether the composition and plant growth-promotional effects of a synthetic AMF community can be altered by inoculum additions of the isolates forming the community. This was determined by following the effects of three AMF isolates, each inoculated in two propagule densities into a preestablished AMF community. Fungal abundance in roots and plant growth were evaluated in three sequential harvests. We found a transient positive response in AMF abundance to the intraspecific inoculation only in the competitively weakest isolate. The other two isolates responded negatively to intra- and interspecific inoculations, and in some cases plant growth was also reduced. Our results suggest that increasing the AMF density may lead to increased competition among fungi and a trade-off with their ability to promote plant productivity. This is a key ecological aspect to consider when introducing AMF into soils.     

Molecular diversity and distribution of indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal communities colonizing roots of two different winter cover crops in response to their root proliferation

A clear understanding of how crop root proliferation affects the distribution of the spore abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and the composition of AMF communities in agricultural fields is imperative to identify the potential roles of AMF in winter cover crop rotational systems. Toward this goal, we conducted a field trial using wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) or red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) grown during the winter season. We conducted a molecular analysis to compare the diversity and distribution of AMF communities in roots and spore abundance in soil cropped with wheat and red clover. The AMF spore abundance, AMF root colonization, and abundance of root length were investigated at three different distances from winter crops (0 cm, 7.5 cm, and 15 cm), and differences in these variables were found between the two crops. The distribution of specific AMF communities and variables responded to the two winter cover crops. The majority of Glomerales phylotypes were common to the roots of both winter cover crops, but Gigaspora phylotypes in Gigasporales were found only in red clover roots. These results also demonstrated that the diversity of the AMF colonizing the roots did not significantly change with the three distances from the crop within each rotation but was strongly influenced by the host crop identity. The distribution of specific AMF phylotypes responded to the presence of wheat and red clover roots, indicating that the host crop identity was much more important than the proliferation of crop roots in determining the diversity of the AMF communities.     

Simulated nitrogen deposition affects community structure of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in northern hardwood forests

Our previous investigation found elevated nitrogen deposition caused declines in abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) associated with forest trees, but little is known about how nitrogen affects the AMF community composition and structure within forest ecosystems. We hypothesized that N deposition would lead to significant changes in the AMF community structure. We studied the diversity and community structure of AMF in northern hardwood forests after more than 12 years of simulated nitrogen deposition. We performed molecular analyses on maple (Acer spp.) roots targeting the 18S rDNA region using the fungal‐specific primers AM1 and NS31. PCR products were cloned and identified using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and sequencing. N addition significantly altered the AMF community structure, and Glomus group A dominated the AMF community. Some Glomus operational taxonomic units (OTUs) responded negatively to N inputs, whereas other Glomus OTUs and an Acaulospora OTU responded positively to N inputs. The observed effect on community structure implies that AMF species associated with maples differ in their response to elevated nitrogen. Given that functional diversity exists among AMF species and that N deposition has been shown to select less beneficial fungi in some ecosystems, this change in community structure could have implications for the functioning of this type of ecosystem.     

Positive Feedback between Mycorrhizal Fungi and Plants Influences Plant Invasion Success and Resistance to Invasion

Negative or positive feedback between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and host plants can contribute to plant species interactions, but how this feedback affects plant invasion or resistance to invasion is not well known. Here we tested how alterations in AMF community induced by an invasive plant species generate feedback to the invasive plant itself and affect subsequent interactions between the invasive species and its native neighbors. We first examined the effects of the invasive forb Solidago canadensis L. on AMF communities comprising five different AMF species. We then examined the effects of the altered AMF community on mutualisms formed with the native legume forb species Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindl. and on the interaction between the invasive and native plants. The host preferences of the five AMF were also assessed to test whether the AMF form preferred mutualistic relations with the invasive and/or the native species. We found that S. canadensis altered AMF spore composition by increasing one AMF species (Glomus geosporum) while reducing Glomus mosseae, which is the dominant species in the field. The host preference test showed that S. canadensis had promoted the abundance of AMF species (G. geosporum) that most promoted its own growth. As a consequence, the altered AMF community enhanced the competitiveness of invasive S. canadensis at the expense of K. striata. Our results demonstrate that the invasive S. canadensis alters soil AMF community composition because of fungal-host preference. This change in the composition of the AMF community generates positive feedback to the invasive S. canadensis itself and decreases AM associations with native K. striata, thereby making the native K. striata less dominant.     

Mycorrhizal‐mediated nitrogen acquisition in switchgrass under elevated temperatures and N enrichment

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can perform key roles in ecosystem functioning through improving host nutrient acquisition. Nitrogen (N) is an essential nutrient for plant growth, however, anthropogenic N loading (e.g. crop fertilization and deposition from combustion sources) is increasing so that N now threatens ecosystem sustainability around the world by causing terrestrial and aquatic eutrophication and acidification. It is important to better understand the capacity of AMF to directly uptake N from soils and transfer it to host plants because this process may increase N recycling and retention within ecosystems. In addition to understanding the role of AMF in the N cycle in the present day it is important to understand how AMF function may change as global change proceeds. Currently the net effects of N enrichment and elevated temperature predicted with global change on AMF are unknown. In this study, we examined the effects of N enrichment by simulated N‐deposition loading, elevated temperatures expected by future global changes and their interactions on growth and AMF‐mediated N acquisition of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum var. Alamo), an important species for biofuel production. Switchgrass plants were grown in microcosm units that divided mycorrhizal roots from AMF hyphae and organic residues enriched with ¹⁵N by compartments separated by an air gap to reduce N diffusion. While AMF did not enhance switchgrass biomass, mycorrhizas significantly increased ¹⁵N in shoots and total shoot N. Neither N enrichment nor elevated temperatures influenced this mycorrhizal‐mediated N uptake and transfer. Results from this study can aid in developing sustainable bioethanol and switchgrass production practices that are less reliant on synthetic fertilizers and more dependent on internal N recycling from AMF.     

Community composition and diversity of Neotropical root‐associated fungi in common and rare trees

Interactions between plants and root‐associated fungi can affect the assembly, diversity, and relative abundances of tropical plant species. Host–symbiont compatibility and some degree of host specificity are prerequisites for these processes to occur, and these prerequisites may vary with host abundance. However, direct assessments of whether specificity of root‐associated fungi varies with host abundance are lacking. Here, in a diverse tropical forest in Los Tuxtlas, Mexico, we couple DNA metabarcoding with a sampling design that controls for host phylogeny, host age, and habitat variation, to characterize fungal communities associated with the roots of three confamilial pairs of host species that exhibit contrasting (high and low) relative abundances. We uncovered a functionally and phylogenetically diverse fungal community composed of 1,038 OTUs (operational taxonomic units with 97% genetic similarity), only 14 of which exhibited host specificity. Host species was a significant predictor of fungal community composition only for the subset of OTUs composed of putatively pathogenic fungi. We found no significant difference in the number of specialists associating with common versus rare trees, but we found that host abundance was negatively correlated with the diversity of root fungal communities. This latter result was significant for symbiotrophs (mostly arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) and, to a lesser extent, for pathotrophs (mostly plant pathogens). Thus, root fungal communities differ between common and rare trees, which may impact the strength of conspecific negative density dependence. Further studies from other tropical sites and host lineages are warranted, given the role of root‐associated fungi in biodiversity maintenance.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi affect plant community structure under various nutrient conditions and stabilize the community productivity

Soil biota could have a significant impact on plant productivity and diversity through benefiting plants and mediating plant–plant interaction. However, it is poorly understood how soil biotic factors interaction with abiotic environments affect plant community diversity and composition. Here, we investigate the community‐level consequences of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) interactions with multiple nutrients and their ecological stoichiometry. We conducted a greenhouse experiment manipulating nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) to create soil nutrient availability and N:P gradients for microcosm communities with and without AMF. We found that AMF suppressed plant diversity at low P levels, whereas it did not alter the diversity at high P levels because of trade‐offs in the abundance of the dominant and subordinate species. AMF reduced plant diversity at the intermediate N:P ratios, while AMF did not affect the diversity at low and high N:P ratios. P addition decreased the mycorrhizal contribution to community productivity, whereas N addition reduced the negative effects of AMF on productivity at high P levels. AMF decreased community productivity at low N:P ratios but increased it at high N:P ratios. AMF increased the stoichiometric homoeostasis of plant communities, which was positively correlated with the stability of productivity under variations in soil N:P ratios. Our study demonstrates that both resource availability and stoichiometry influence the effect of AMF on plant community productivity and diversity and suggests that AMF may increase the stability of plant communities under variations in the soil nutrients by increasing the stoichiometric homoeostasis of the plant community.     

Infection by mycorrhizal fungi increases natural enemy abundance on tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)

The presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) influences plant nutrient uptake, growth, and plant defensive chemistry, thereby directly influencing multi-trophic interactions. Different fungal isolates (genotypes of the same fungal species) have been shown to differ in nutrient uptake ability. Plants infected with different AMF genotypes may vary in foliar nutrient or defensive chemical levels, potentially influencing multi-trophic interactions. Using a completely randomized design, we compared the effect of two isolates of the mycorrhizal fungus Glomus etunicatum W. N. Becker & Gerdemann on silver leaf whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and parasitic wasp (Eretmocerus eremicus Rose & Zolnerowich) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) abundance. Whitefly populations were not influenced by AMF infection. Parasite populations were higher on plants infected with the isolate collected from Georgia, even after controlling for whitefly abundance and plant architecture. We propose that AMF indirectly influences parasite abundance and parasitism through a change in leaf surface chemicals that affect parasitic wasps. Because of the ubiquity of and genetic variation in AMF, multi-trophic interactions are likely to be strongly influenced by belowground processes.     

Using the output from global circulation models to predict changes in the distribution and abundance of cereal aphids in Canada: a mechanistic modeling approach

Climate change will alter the abundance and distribution of species. Predicting these shifts is a challenge for ecologists and essential information for the formation of public policy. Here, I use a mechanistic mathematical model of the interaction between grass growth physiology and aphid population dynamics, coupled with the climate change projections from the UK's Hadley Centre HadCM3 global circulation model (GCM) and Canada's Center for Climate Modeling and Analysis CGCM2 GCM to predict the changes in the abundance and distribution of summer cereal aphid populations in wheat-growing regions of Canada. When used with the HadCM3 projections, the model predicts a latitudinal shift northward in abundances but there is longitudinal variation as well. However, when used with the CGCM2 projections the model predicts that continental regions will see a decline while coastal regions will see an increase in summer cereal aphid populations. These effects are stronger under the higher emissions scenarios.     

Grassland invaders and their mycorrhizal symbionts: a study across climate and invasion gradients

Controlled experiments show that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can increase competitiveness of exotic plants, potentially increasing invasion success. We surveyed AMF abundance and community composition in Centaurea stoebe and Potentilla recta invasions in the western USA to assess whether patterns were consistent with mycorrhizal-mediated invasions. We asked whether (1) AMF abundance and community composition differ between native and exotic forbs, (2) associations between native plants and AMF shift with invading exotic plants, and (3) AMF abundance and/or community composition differ in areas where exotic plants are highly invasive and in areas where they are not. We collected soil and roots from invaded and native forb communities along invasion gradients and in regions with different invasion densities. We used AMF root colonization as a measure of AMF abundance and characterized AMF communities in roots using 454-sequencing of the LSU-rDNA region. All plants were highly colonized (>60%), but exotic forbs tended to be more colonized than natives (P < 0.001). We identified 30 AMF operational taxonomic units (OTUs) across sites, and community composition was best predicted by abiotic factors (soil texture, pH). Two OTUs in the genera Glomus and Rhizophagus dominated in most communities, and their dominance increased with invasion density (r = 0.57, P = 0.010), while overall OTU richness decreased with invasion density (r = −0.61, P = 0.006). Samples along P. recta invasion gradients revealed small and reciprocal shifts in AMF communities with >45% fungal OTUs shared between neighboring native and P. recta plants. Overall, we observed significant, but modest, differences in AMF colonization and communities between co-occurring exotic and native forbs and among exotic forbs across regions that differ in invasion pressure. While experimental manipulations are required to assess functional consequences, the observed patterns are not consistent with those expected from strong mycorrhizal-mediated invasions.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi enhance the growth of the exotic species Ambrosia artemisiifolia

丛枝菌根真菌促进外来植物豚草的生长 丛枝菌根真菌(AMF)可以通过其菌丝增加寄主植物对养分的吸收,从而促进植物生长。丛枝菌根真菌一直与大多数外来植物的成功入侵联系在一起。然而,有关丛枝菌根真菌如何影响植物入侵成功的机制仍然有待研究。豚草(Ambrosia artemisiifolia)是一种外来的菌根植物。通过长期田间实验,我们研究了种间竞争对豚草和狗尾草(Setaria viridis)根系丛枝菌根真菌多样性和组成的影响。此外,在温室实验中探究了摩西球囊霉(Funneliformis mosseae)对这两种植物生长的影响。研究结果表明,豚草入侵改变了本地植物狗尾草根系丛枝菌根真菌的多样性。另外,豚草根系中摩西球囊霉的相对多度显著高于狗尾草根系中。在田间和温室实验中均发现外来种豚草的丛枝菌根真菌侵染率高于本地种狗尾草。温室实验结果表明,丛枝菌根真菌通过影响豚草的光合能力以及磷和钾的吸收而促进豚草生长。这些研究结果揭示了丛枝菌根真菌和豚草成功入侵之间的重要关系。