The possible roles of algae in restricting the increase in atmospheric CO2 and global temperature

ABSTRACT

Anthropogenic inputs are increasing the CO₂ content of the atmosphere, and the CO₂ and total inorganic C in the surface ocean and, to a lesser degree, the deep ocean. The greenhouse effect of the increased CO₂ (and, to a lesser extent, other greenhouse gases) is very probably the major cause of present global warming. The warming increases temperature of the atmosphere and the surface ocean to a greater extent than the deep ocean, with shoaling of the thermocline, decreasing nutrient flux to the surface ocean where there is greater mean photosynthetic photon flux density. These global changes influence algae in nature. However, it is clear that algae are important, via the biological pump, in decreasing the steady state atmospheric and ocean surface CO₂, and thus decreasing radiative forcing, a reduction enhanced by algal increases in albedo. As well as these natural processes there are possibilities that algae can, with human intervention, partly offset the increase in atmospheric CO₂. One possibility is to grow algae as sources of fuel for transport, in principle providing an energy source that is close to CO₂-neutral. The other possibility is to increase the role of algae in sequestering CO₂ as organic C over periods of hundreds or more years in the deep ocean and marine sediments and/or increasing albedo and decreasing radiative forcing of temperature. There are problems, currently unresolved, in the economically viable production of algal biofuels without carbon trading subsidies. Enhanced algal CO₂ sequestration also has costs, both in resource input (phosphorus (P) from high P content rocks, a limited resource with a competing use as an agricultural fertilizer) and adverse environmental effects. For example, ocean anoxic zones producing N₂O and increased algal production of short-lived halocarbons by algae that both, through breakdown, destroy O₃ and increase UV flux to the Earth’s surface.     

广州市红树林和滩涂湿地生态系统与大气二氧化碳交换

在生物量调查和土壤温室气体排放量测定基础上,对广州市红树林和滩涂湿地生态系统与大气CO₂交换进行研究,分析湿地植被净生产力吸收CO₂的能力和不同积水状态下(常年积水、间歇积水、无积水)湿地碳汇功能.结果表明:红树林湿地植被净生产力吸收CO₂ 33.74 t·hm^-2·a^-1,土壤排放CO₂(包括CH₄折算成CO₂的温室效应量)12.26 t·hm^-2·a^-1,湿地每年净吸收大气CO₂ 21.48 t·hm^-2,说明红树林湿地是一个强的碳汇;滩涂湿地植被净生产力吸收CO₂ 8.54 t·hm^-2·a^-1,土壤排放CO₂ 5.88 t·hm^-2·a^-1,排放CH₄ 0.19 t·hm^-2·a^-1,若按碳素折算,湿地每年吸收大气中碳素2.33 t·hm^-2,土壤排放碳素1.74 t·hm^-2包括（CH₄中的碳),系统净固定碳0.59 t·hm^-2,说明滩涂湿地是一个弱的碳汇,若将CH₄的温室效应折算成CO₂量,则土壤排放CO₂ 9.78 t·hm^-2·a^-1,排放比吸收多1.24 t·hm^-2·a^-1,对大气温室效应而言,滩涂湿地是一个弱碳源;常年积水下排放的温室气体主要是CH₄,无积水下排放的温室气体主要是CO₂;常年积水湿地碳汇功能最大,无积水湿地碳汇功能最小.     

Kohlenstoffpumpen im Ozean steuern das Klima. Globale Erwärmung

Here we describe how microscopic marine algae and animals, the plankton impact global climate and how the changing concentration of the climate relevant gas carbon dioxide (CO₂) result in shifts in the marine carbonate system, including a drop in the pH (ocean acidification). Three processes, summarily called the carbon pumps transfer carbon between the surface and the deep ocean: The solubility pump moves inorganic, dissolved carbon to depth. The biological pump transports organic, particulate carbon downward. The carbonate counter pump describes the formation and sedimentation of carbonate tests, whereby CO₂ is released into the surface ocean. On geological timescales the biological pump was strengthened during glacial times due to an increase in the iron supply, which lead to a (continued) decline in temperatures. Hence, the idea to fertilize the ocean with iron thereby strengthening the biological pump and mediating today's climate change has been discussed for the past 20 years.     

Biosphere Structure, Carbon Sequestering Potential and the Atmospheric 14C Carbon Record

The behaviour of a numerical model for the global carbon cycleis eluidated by a simple analytical model for the biosphere.In the period 1980—1990 the ocean is estimated to haveabsorbed 33% of the total CO₂ emission to the atmosphere inthat same period. Net deforestation was responsible for 12—17%of this total emission rate, whereas the CO₂-fertilization effectcaused a re-absorption of 20—25%. Aggregation of the above-ground biosphere into a single poolin the model caused an oversitmation of the CO₂-fertilizationeffect. Also, the estimate of this rate increased when the fractionof carbon assumed to remain after the transformation of litterinto humus was increased, but the rate was little influencedby the model structure for soil organic carbon. A larger estimate for carbon uptake in the biosphere (Tans,Fung, and Takahashi, 1990) must be compensated by a reduceduptake in the ocean to arrive at a carbon balance. To do this,either the exchange rate between the upper mixed ocean layerand deep sea, or between ocean surface and atmosphere, shouldbe reduced. In addition, a good match to the observed time-courseof ¹⁴C carbon in the atmosphere must be preserved by the model.The ¹⁴C time-course did not remain well-matched if the atmosphere—oceansurface exchange was reduced, but it was hardly distrubed atall if the exchange rate with the deep sea was reduced. Key words: CO₂-fertilization, global carbon cycle.     

CO2浓度增加和不同氮肥水平对冬小麦根系呼吸及生物量的影响

 依托FACE(Free-air CO₂ enrichment)研究平台, 利用特制分根集气生长箱, 采用静态箱-GC(Gas chromatography)法, 连续两年研究 了大气CO₂浓度升高和不同氮肥水平对冬小麦拔节期、孕穗抽穗期和灌浆末期的根系呼吸及生物量的影响。两季结果表明, CO₂浓度升高和高氮 肥量均不同程度地增加了3个阶段的地上部和地下部的生物量, 这有利于增加根茬的还田量; CO₂浓度升高对冬小麦不同生长阶段的根系呼吸影 响不同, 在拔节期影响较小;孕穗抽穗期显著增加了根系呼吸, 2004~2005季分别增加33.8%(148.1 mg N&;#8226;kg^-1 干土, HN)和43.9%(88.9 mg N&;#8226;kg^-1 干土, LN), 2005~2006季分别为23.8%(HN)和28.9%(LN); 而灌浆末期显著降低了根系呼吸, 2004~2005季分别降低31.4%(HN)和23.3% (LN), 2005~2006季分别为25.1%(HN)和18.5%(LN); 高施氮量比低施氮量促进了根系呼吸; 随着作物生长根系呼吸与地下生物量呈显著线性负相 关, 高CO₂环境中的R²变小,表明随着作物生长发育高CO₂浓度降低了作物根系呼吸与地下部生物量积累间的相关性.     

Photosynthesis of Stands of Tomato, Cucumber and Sweet Pepper Measured in Greenhouses under Various CO2-concentrations

The rate of net photosynthesis (P) of whole plant stands oftomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), cucumber (Cucumis sativusL.) and sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) was measured in sixlong-term experiments in large greenhouses under normal operatingconditions and CO₂-concentrations between 200 and 1200 µmolmol^-1. The objective was to quantify the responses to lightand carbon dioxide and to obtain data sets for testing simulationmodels. The method of measuring canopy photosynthesis involvedan accurate estimation of the greenhouse CO₂ balance, usingnitrous oxide (N₂O) as tracer gas to determine, on-line, theexchange rate between greenhouse and outside air. The estimatedrelative error in the observed P was about ± 10%, exceptthat higher relative errors could occur under particular conditions. A regression equation relating P to the photosynthetically activeradiation, the CO₂ concentration and the leaf area index explained83-91% of the variance. The main canopy photosynthesis characteristicscalculated with the fitted regression equations were: canopyP_max 5-9 g m^-2 h^-1 CO₂ uptake; ratio P_max/LAI 1·5-3 gm^-2 h^-1; light compensation point 32-86 µmol s^-1 m^-2;light use efficiency (quantum yield) at low light 0·06-0·10µmol µmol^-1 and CO₂ compensation point 18-54 µmolmol^-1. The results were related to the prevailing conditions.Copyright1994, 1999 Academic Press Canopy photosynthesis, Capsicum annuum L., carbon dioxide, CO₂, CO₂ balance, CO₂ use efficiency, cucumber, _{Cucumis sativus} L., glasshouse, greenhouse, light use efficiency, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., sweet pepper, tomato, tracer gas     

Variations of stomatal density and carbon isotope values of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Picea crassifolia</Emphasis> at different altitudes in the Qilian Mountains

The stomatal characteristics, length and dry weight as well as stable carbon isotope composition (i¹³C) of needles and tree rings of Qinghai spruce (Picea crassifolia) at different altitudes in the Qilian mountains were investigated. The results showed that stomatal density, distribution pattern on epidermis, and length and dry weight of needles all increased with altitude below 3,000 m. In contrast, these parameters all decreased with increasing altitude above 3,000 m. Furthermore an assay of tree rings showed that near 3,000 m in altitude was the optimum zone for growth and development of Qinghai spruce. Although atmospheric CO₂ concentration influences stomatal density, the effects of many environmental factors, such as temperature, light and rainfall, could obscure the effects of changes in atmospheric CO₂ concentration on stomatal density at altitudes higher than the optimum for growth. The correlation of stomatal density with atmospheric CO₂ concentration and i¹³C of Qinghai spruce needles was significant below 3,000 m, but was insignificant above 3,000 m altitude. The i¹³C value of needles, however, was negatively correlated with atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Therefore, the influence of altitude should be considered in research on plant physiological ecology and the relationship of stomatal density with i¹³C value or atmospheric CO₂ concentration.     

Carbon Dioxide Effects on Carbohydrate Status and Partitioning in Rice

The atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration has beenrising and is predicted to reach double the present concentrationsometime during the next century. The objective of this investigationwas to determine the long-term effects of different CO₂ concentrationson carbohydrate status and partitioning in rice (Oryza sativaL cv. IR-30). Rice plants were grown season-long in outdoor,naturally sunlit, environmentally controlled growth chamberswith CO₂ concentrations of 160, 250, 330, 500, 660, and 900µmolCO₂ mol¹ air. In leaf blades, the priority between the partitioningof carbon into storage carbohydrates or into export changedwith developmental stage and CO₂ concentration. During vegetativegrowth, leaf sucrose and starch concentrations increased withincreasing CO₂ concentration but tended to level off above 500µmolmol^–1 CO₂. Similarly, photosynthesis also increased withCO2 concentrations up to 500µmol mol^–1 and thenreached a plateau at higher concentrations. The ratio of starchto sucrose concentration was positively correlated with theCO₂ concentration. At maturity, increasing CO₂ concentrationresulted in an increase in total non-structural carbohydrate(TNC) concentration in leaf blades, leaf sheaths and culms.Carbohydrates that were stored in vegetative plant parts beforeheading made a smaller contribution to grain dry weight at CO₂concentrations below 330µmol mol^–1 than for treatmentsat concentrations above ambient Increasing CO₂ concentrationhad no effect on the carbohydrate concentration in the grainat maturity Key words: CO₂ enrichment, starch, sucrose     

Forest carbon balance under elevated CO2

Free-air CO₂ enrichment (FACE) technology was used to expose a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) forest to elevated atmospheric CO₂ (ambient + 200 µl l^-1). After 4 years, basal area of pine trees was 9.2% larger in elevated than in ambient CO₂ plots. During the first 3 years the growth rate of pine was stimulated by ~26%. In the fourth year this stimulation declined to 23%. The average net ecosystem production (NEP) in the ambient plots was 428 gC m^-2 year^-1, indicating that the forest was a net sink for atmospheric CO₂. Elevated atmospheric CO₂ stimulated NEP by 41%. This increase was primarily an increase in plant biomass increment (57%), and secondarily increased accumulation of carbon in the forest floor (35%) and fine root increment (8%). Net primary production (NPP) was stimulated by 27%, driven primarily by increases in the growth rate of the pines. Total heterotrophic respiration (R_h) increased by 165%, but total autotrophic respiration (R_a) was unaffected. Gross primary production was increased by 18%. The largest uncertainties in the carbon budget remain in separating belowground heterotrophic (soil microbes) and autotrophic (root) respiration. If applied to temperate forests globally, the increase in NEP that we measured would fix less than 10% of the anthropogenic CO₂ projected to be released into the atmosphere in the year 2050. This may represent an upper limit because rising global temperatures, land disturbance, and heterotrophic decomposition of woody tissues will ultimately cause an increased flux of carbon back to the atmosphere.     

Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase and CarbonEconomy of Apple Seedlings

Seeds of apple cv. Golden Delicious were germinated and cultivatedin the greenhouse until the third leaf emerged. Respirationofgerminating seeds or photosynthesis of the first leaves wasmeasured by infra-red gas analysis and porometry, respectively.To study the role of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC),the dominant carboxylase in the carbon economy, its CO₂ refixationpotentialwas related to the amount of CO₂ lost in respiration. With arange of 0.2 (dry seeds) to 18 (cotyledons) µmol CO₂ h^–1g^–1 PEPC activity resembled or exceeded the amount ofC0₂ lost in respiration before the third leaf developed. Itis concludedthat PEPC largely contributes to economize the carbonmetabolism of apple seedlings before they become photosyntheticallycompetent. Key words: Apple (Malus pumila Mill.) seedling, carbon economy, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, photosynthesis, respiration     

中国森林生态系统土壤CO2释放分布规律及其影响因素

联合国气候框架公约的签署提升了人们对全球变暖、碳循环变化的关注。陆地生态系统在全球变暖格局下的地位与作用,尤其是土壤碳库对全球变暖格局的响应是全球变化研究的焦点。土壤CO₂释放作为土壤-大气CO₂交换的主要途径之一,也就成为各国生态学家研究的重点内容。在对我国森林生态系统CO₂释放通量以及相关气候、生物等因子的资料进行收集、整理和分析的基础上,探讨了我国森林生态系统土壤CO₂释放的分布规律,以及这种规律性分布的气候、生物影响因素。对于我国这样一个南北跨度大的国家,不同区域的森林生态系统土壤CO₂释放通量间存在较大的差异,在全国尺度上,森林生态系统土壤CO₂释放通量平均值为(1.79 ± 0.86) g C m^-2 d^-1,而且土壤CO₂释放通量随着纬度增加逐渐降低。作为一个复杂的生态过程,土壤CO2释放受到生物、非生物因子或独立、或综合的影响。通过分析指出,在全国尺度上,年均温、降雨量、群落净生产力及凋落物量显著地影响森林土壤CO₂释放通量。同时,也正是这些影响因子的纬度分布,导致了我国森林生态系统土壤CO₂释放通量的纬度分布规律。作为衡量土壤CO₂释放对温度敏感性的重要指标,计算了我国森林生态系统土壤CO2释放温度敏感性系数-Q₁₀值,约为1.5,该值显著低于全球平均水平,2.0。     

Alkalization of the Medium by Unicellular Green Algae during Uptake Dissolved Inorganic Carbon

When Chlorella vulgaris 11h, Chlorella vulgaris C-l, Chlamydomonasreinhardtii, Chlamydomonas moewusii, Scenedesmus obliquus, orDunaliella tertiolecta were illuminated in with 0.5 mM NaHCO₃,the pH of the medium increased in a few minutes from 6 to about9 or 10. The alkalization, which was accompanied by O₂ evolution,was dependent on light, external dissolved inorganic carbon(DIC) as HCO^-₃, and algae grown or adapted to a low, air-levelCO₂ in order to develop a DIC concentrating mechanism. Therewas little pH increase by algae without a DIC concentratingprocess from growth on 3% CO₂ in air. Photosynthetic O₂ evolutionwithout alkalization occurred using either internal DIC or externalCO₂ at acidic pH. The PH increase stopped between pH 9 to 10,but the alkalization would restart upon re-acidification betweenpH 6 and 8. Alkalization was suppressed by the carbonic anhydraseinhibitors, acetazolamide, ethoxyzolamide or carbon oxysulfide.The pH increase appeared to be the consequence of the externalconversion of HCO^–₃ into CO₂ plus OH^– during photosynthesisby cells with a high affinity for CO₂ uptake. Cells grown onhigh CO₂ to suppress the DIC pump, when given low levels ofHCO^–₃ in the light, acidified the medium from pH 10 to7. Air adapted Scenedesmus cells with a HCO^–₃ pump, aswell as a CO₂ pump, alkalized the medium very rapidly in thelight to a pH of over 10, as well as slower in the dark or inthe light with DCMU or without external DIC and O₂ evolution.Alkalization of the medium during photosynthetic DIC uptakeby algae has been considered to be part of the global carboncycle for converting H₂CO₃ to HCO^–₃ and for the formationof carbonate salts by calcareous algae from the alkaline conversionof bicarbonate to carbonate. These processes seem to be a consequenceof the algal CO₂ concentrating process. ¹Present address: Department of Biology, Faculty of Science,Niigata University, Niigata, 950-21 Japan.     

Short- and long-term greenhouse gas and radiative forcing impacts of changing water management in Asian rice paddies

Fertilized rice paddy soils emit methane while flooded, emit nitrous oxide during flooding and draining transitions, and can be a source or sink of carbon dioxide. Changing water management of rice paddies can affect net emissions of all three of these greenhouse gases. We used denitrification–decomposition (DNDC), a process‐based biogeochemistry model, to evaluate the annual emissions of CH₄, N₂O, and CO₂ for continuously flooded, single‐, double‐, and triple‐cropped rice (three baseline scenarios), and in further simulations, the change in emissions with changing water management to midseason draining of the paddies, and to alternating crops of midseason drained rice and upland crops (two alternatives for each baseline scenario). We used a set of first‐order atmospheric models to track the atmospheric burden of each gas over 500 years. We evaluated the dynamics of the radiative forcing due to the changes in emissions of CH₄, N₂O, and CO₂ (alternative minus baseline), and compared these with standard calculations of CO₂‐equivalent emissions using global warming potentials (GWPs). All alternative scenarios had lower CH₄ emissions and higher N₂O emissions than their corresponding baseline cases, and all but one sequestered carbon in the soil more slowly. Because of differences in emissions, in radiative forcing per molecule, and in atmospheric time constants (lifetimes), the relative radiative impacts of CH₄, N₂O, and CO₂ varied over the 500‐year simulations. In three of the six cases, the initial change in radiative forcing was dominated by reduced CH₄ emissions (i.e. a cooling for the first few decades); in five of the six cases, the long‐term radiative forcing was dominated by increased N₂O emissions (i.e. a warming over several centuries). The overall complexity of the radiative forcing response to changing water management could not easily be captured with conventional GWP calculations.     

Effects of nitrogen on Pinus palustris foliar respiratory responses to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration

Indirect effects of atmospheric CO₂ concentration [CO₂], onlongleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) foliage respiration werestudied by growing trees in a factorial arrangement of low andhigh [CO₂] (369 and 729µmol CO₂ mol^–1) and low andhigh N (40 and 400 kg ha^–1 yr^–1). Direct effectsof [CO₂] on leaf respiration were tested by measuring respirationrates of foliage from all treatments at two CO₂ levels (360and 720µmol CO₂mol^–1) at the time of measurement.Elevated CO₂ did not directly or indirectly affect leaf respirationwhen expressed on a leaf area or mass basis, but a significantincrease in respiration per unit leaf N was observed in treesgrown in elevated [CO₂] (indirect response to elevated [CO₂]).The lack of a [CO₂] effect on respiration, when analysed onan area or mass basis, may have resulted from combined effectsof [CO₂] on factors that increase respiration (e.g. greateravailability of non-structural carbohydrates stimulating growthand carbon export from leaves) and on factors that decreaserespiration (e.g. lower N concentration leading to lower constructioncosts and maintenance requirements). Thus, [CO₂] affected factorsthat influence respiration, but in opposing ways. Key words: Pinus palustris, elevated CO₂, nitrogen, foliar, respiration     

Glycolate Pathway and Serine Synthesis in Relation to CO2 Concentration in Tomato Leaves

Isotopic trapping of the carbon flowing through the glycolatepathway by exogenous glycolate, glycine and L-serine was investigatedduring ¹⁴CO₂ photosynthesis at different CO₂ concentrationsin tomato leaves. L-Serine markedly trapped the carbon flowingfrom ¹⁴CO₂. The amounts of ¹⁴C incorporated into serine decreasedat a high CO₂ concentration, but increased with an increasein the CO₂ concentration in the presence of exogenous serineduring 10-min photosynthesis in ¹⁴CO₂. When ¹⁴CO₂ was fed for5 to 40 sec at 1300 ppm CO₂ to tomato leaves which had beengiven L-serine, an increase in the accumulation of ¹⁴C-serinebegan after 20 sec, and the ¹⁴C-serine molecules formed at 20and 40 sec were labeled uniformly. In the presence of exogenousserine during 10-min photosynthesis in 1300 ppm CO₂, isonicotinicacid hydrazide increased the incorporation of ¹⁴CO₂ into glycinewith a corresponding decrease in the accumulation of ¹⁴C-serine,but it did not inhibit serine accumulation completely; an evidencefor that some serine was formed by a pathway other than theglycolate pathway. The effect of the CO₂ concentration on theglycolate pathway is discussed in terms of serine synthesisin the presence of exogenous serine. (Received June 1, 1981; Accepted September 30, 1981)     

Active Uptake of CO2 by the Diatom Navicula pelliculosa

Mass spectrometry has been used to investigate the transportof CO₂ in the freshwater diatom Navicula pelliculosa. The timecourseof CO₂ formation in the dark after addition of 100 mmol m^–3dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) to cell suspensions showedthat no external carbonic anhydrase (CA) was present in thesecells. Upon illumination, cells pre-incubated at pH 75 with100 mmol m^–3 DIC, removed almost all free CO₂ from themedium at an initial rate of 285 µmol CO₂ mg^–1Chl h^–1. Equilibrium between HCO₃^– and CO₂ in themedium occurred rapidly upon addition of bovine CA, showingthat CO₂ depletion resulted from a selective uptake of CO₂ ratherthan an uptake of all inorganic carbon species. However, photosyntheticO₂ evolution rate remained constant after CO₂ had been depletedfrom the medium indicating that photosynthesis is sustainedprimarily by active HCO₃^– uptake. Treatment of cells with2-iodoacetamide (83 mol m^–3) completely inhibited CO₂fixation but had little effect on CO₂ transport since initialrates of CO₂ depletion were about 81% that of untreated cells.Transfer of iodoacetamide-treated cells to the dark caused arapid increase in the CO₂ concentration in the medium largelydue to the efflux of the unfixed intracellular DIC pool whichwas found to be about 194 times the concentration of that inthe external medium. These results indicate that Navicula pelliculosaactively takes up molecular CO₂ against a concentration gradientby a process distinct from HCO₃^– transport. Key words: Dissolved inorganic carbon, carbonic anhydrase, bicarbonate transport, CO₂ transport, mass spectrometry     

Effects of Certain Inhibitors on Photorespiration by Wheat Leaf Segments

The effect on the carbon metabolism of wheat leaf segments ofcertain inhibitors of photorespiration was studied. Sodium 2-hydroxy-3-butynoatesupplied for 40 min resulted in accumulation of ¹⁴C in glycolicacid with only a 7% inhibition of photosynthesis; when suppliedfor 90 min, photosynthesis was inhibited by 47%. When ¹⁴CO₂was replaced by 1000 vpm ¹²CO₂, radioactivity in glycine decreasedbut increased more rapidly in sucrose with less release of ¹⁴CO₂.Isonicotinyl hydrazide (INH) inhibited photosynthesis from ¹⁴CO₂by 50% and glycine replaced sucrose as the main product. When,after 15 min, ¹⁴CO₂ was replaced by 150 vpm ¹²CO₂, in the presenceof INH less ¹⁴CO₂ was released, ¹⁴CO in glycine decreased moreslowly, and less [¹⁴CO]sucrose accumulated. Glycidate (potassium2,3-epoxypropionate) at 2 mM had no effect on photosyntheticrate and little effect on carbon metabolism; 20 mM glycidateinhibited photosynthesis by 64% and resulted in less radioactivityin glycine, more in phosphate esters, and less ¹⁴CO₂ released.When photosynthesis was measured in 1000 vpm CO₂ the inhibitorsgave smaller effects on metabolism than during photosynthesisfrom 150 vpm ¹⁴CO₂ but 20 mM glycidate still resulted in a 42%inhibition of photosynthesis. When U- [¹⁴CO]glycerate was appliedto leaf segments in air with 320 vpm ¹⁴CO₂ the total uptakeof glycerate was not changed by the inhibitors. INH and glycidateboth decreased the amount of glycerate metabolised. More ¹⁴COaccumulated in glycine in the presence of INH and in phosphateesters and serine in the presence of glycidate. Hydroxybutynoateincreased the production of glycolate from glycerate but didnot affect the total amount of glycerate metabolised. Although all three inhibitors affected photorespiratory metabolismnone stimulated photosynthesis. The results are consistent withthe main release of CO₂ in photorespiration arising from theconversion of glycine to serine.     

Physiology and Growth of Wheat Across a Subambient Carbon Dioxide Gradient

Two cultivars of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), 'Yaqui 54' and'Seri M82', were grown along a gradient of daytime carbon dioxideconcentrations ([CO₂]) from near 350-200 µmol CO₂ mol^-1air in a 38 m long controlled environment chamber. Carbon dioxidefluxes and evapotranspiration were measured for stands (plantsand soil) in five consecutive 7·6-m lengths of the chamberto determined potential effects of the glacial/interglacialincrease in atmospheric [CO₂] on C₃ plants. Growth rates andleaf areas of individual plants and net assimilation per unitleaf area and daily (24-h) net CO₂ accumulation of wheat standsrose with increasing [CO₂]. Daytime net assimilation (P_D, mmolCO₂ m^-2 soil surface area) and water use efficiency of wheatstands increased and the daily total of photosynthetic photonflux density required by stands for positive CO₂ accumulation(light compensation point) declined at higher [CO₂]. Nighttimerespiration (R_N, mmol CO₂ m^-2 soil surface) of wheat, measuredat 369-397 µmol mol^-1 CO₂, apparently was not alteredby growth at different daytime [CO₂], but R_N /P_D of stands declinedlinearly as daytime [CO₂] and P_D increased. The responses ofwheat to [CO₂], if representative of other C₃ species, suggestthat the 75-100% increase in [CO₂] since glaciation and the30% increase since 1800 reduced the minimum light and waterrequirements for growth and increased the productivity of C₃plants.Copyright 1993, 1999 Academic Press Atmospheric carbon dioxide, carbon accumulation, evapotranspiration, light compensation point, net assimilation, respiration, Triticum aestivum, water use efficiency, wheat     

Vegetation-climate feedbacks in a greenhouse world

The potential for feedbacks between terrestrial vegetation, climate, and the atmospheric CO₂ partial pressure have been addressed by modelling. Previous research has established that under global warming and CO₂ enrichment, the stomatal conductance of vegetation tends to decrease, causing a warming effect on top of the driving change in greenhouse warming. At the global scale, this positive feedback is ultimately changed to a negative feedback through changes in vegetation structure. In spatial terms this structural feedback has a variable geographical pattern in terms of magnitude and sign. At high latitudes, increases in vegetation leaf area index (LAI) and vegetation height cause a positive feedback, and warming through reductions in the winter snow-cover albedo. At lower latitudes when vegetation becomes more sparse with warming, the higher albedo of the underlying soil leads to cooling. However, the largest area effects are of negative feedbacks caused by increased evaporative cooling with increasing LAI. These effects do not include feedbacks on the atmospheric CO₂ concentration, through changes in the carbon cycle of the vegetation. Modelling experiments, with biogeochemical, physiological and structural feedbacks on atmospheric CO₂, but with no changes in precipitation, ocean activity or sea ice formation, have shown that a consequence of the CO₂ fertilization effect on vegetation will be a reduction of atmospheric CO₂ concentration, in the order of 12% by the year 2100 and a reduced global warming by 0.7°C, in a total greenhouse warming of 3.9°C.     

Growth at elevated CO2 leads to down-regulation of photosynthesis and altered response to high temperature in Quercus suber L. seedlings

The effects of growth at elevated CO₂ on the response to hightemperatures in terms of carbon assimilation (net photosynthesis,stomatal conductance, amount and activity of Rubisco, and concentrationsof total soluble sugars and starch) and of photochemistry (forexample, the efficiency of excitation energy captured by openphotosystem II reaction centres) were studied in cork oak (Quercussuber L.). Plants grown in elevated CO₂ (700 ppm) showed a down-regulationof photosynthesis and had lower amounts and activity of Rubiscothan plants grown at ambient CO₂ (350 ppm), after 14 monthsin the greenhouse. At that time plants were subjected to a heat-shocktreatment (4 h at 45C in a chamber with 80% relative humidityand 800–1000 mol m^–2 s^–1 photon flux density).Growth in a CO₂-enriched atmosphere seems to protect cork oakleaves from the short-term effects of high temperature. ElevatedCO₂ plants had positive net carbon uptake rates during the heatshock treatment whereas plants grown at ambient CO₂ showed negativerates. Moreover, recovery was faster in high CO₂-grown plantswhich, after 30 min at 25C, exhibited higher net carbon uptakerates and lower decreases in photosynthetic capacity (A_max aswell as in the efficiency of excitation energy captured by openphotosystem II reaction centres (F_vJF_m than plants grown atambient CO₂. The stomata of elevated CO₂ plants were also lessresponsive when exposed to high temperature. Key words: Elevated CO₂, temperature, acclimation, photosynthesis, Quercus suber L.