Pathogen disgust,but not moral disgust,changes across the menstrual cycle

The Compensatory Prophylaxis Hypothesis (CPH) proposes that during periods of increased susceptibility to infections, e.g., during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle when progesterone suppresses immune function, women should feel more disgust toward pathogen cues and behave prophylactically. We investigate differences in disgust sensitivity and contamination sensitivity during different phases of the menstrual cycle in regularly cycling, healthy 93 rural and urban Polish women using the within-subject design. Disgust sensitivity was measured during two different phases of a menstrual cycle: 1) the follicular phase (the 5th or 6th day of the cycle) and 2) the luteal phase (on the 5th day after a positive ovulatory test or on 20th day of a cycle if the result of the ovulatory test was not positive). In the luteal phase, women scored higher on the Pathogen Disgust of the Three-Domain Disgust Scale, the Contamination Obsessions and Washing Compulsions Subscale of Padua Inventory, and on ratings of photographs showing sources of potential infections than in the follicular phase. Moral Disgust of the Three-Domain Disgust Scale did not differ between cycle phases. Hence, results suggest that women feel more disgusted toward cues to pathogens during the luteal phase, when susceptibility to infection is greater. We suggest that it is necessary to incorporate ovulatory testing as well as to conduct repeated measurements of disgust sensitivity in future tests of the CPH. Moreover, we believe that understanding how the feeling of pathogen disgust varies across the menstrual cycle and in relation to progesterone levels could be useful in designing effective infectious diseases prevention strategies for women.     

Reprint of Hormonal correlates of pathogen disgust: testing the compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis

Raised progesterone during the menstrual cycle is associated with suppressed physiological immune responses, reducing the probability that the immune system will compromise the blastocyst's development. The Compensatory Prophylaxis Hypothesis proposes that this progesterone-linked immunosuppression triggers increased disgust responses to pathogen cues, compensating for the reduction in physiological immune responses by minimizing contact with pathogens. Although a popular and influential hypothesis, there is no direct, within-woman evidence for correlated changes in progesterone and pathogen disgust. To address this issue, we used a longitudinal design to test for correlated changes in salivary progesterone and pathogen disgust (measured using the pathogen disgust subscale of the Three Domain Disgust Scale) in a large sample of women (N?=?375). Our analyses showed no evidence that pathogen disgust tracked changes in progesterone, estradiol, testosterone, or cortisol. Thus, our results provide no support for the Compensatory Prophylaxis Hypothesis of variation in pathogen disgust.     

Hormonal correlates of pathogen disgust: testing the compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis

Raised progesterone during the menstrual cycle is associated with suppressed physiological immune responses, reducing the probability that the immune system will compromise the blastocyst's development. The Compensatory Prophylaxis Hypothesis proposes that this progesterone-linked immunosuppression triggers increased disgust responses to pathogen cues, compensating for the reduction in physiological immune responses by minimizing contact with pathogens. Although a popular and influential hypothesis, there is no direct, within-woman evidence for correlated changes in progesterone and pathogen disgust. To address this issue, we used a longitudinal design to test for correlated changes in salivary progesterone and pathogen disgust (measured using the pathogen disgust subscale of the Three Domain Disgust Scale) in a large sample of women (N = 375). Our analyses showed no evidence that pathogen disgust tracked changes in progesterone, estradiol, testosterone, or cortisol. Thus, our results provide no support for the Compensatory Prophylaxis Hypothesis of variation in pathogen disgust.     

Disgust versus Lust: Exploring the Interactions of Disgust and Fear with Sexual Arousal in Women

Sexual arousal is a motivational state that moves humans toward situations that inherently pose a risk of disease transmission. Disgust is an emotion that adaptively moves humans away from such situations. Incongruent is the fact that sexual activity is elementary to human fitness yet involves strong disgust elicitors. Using an experimental paradigm, we investigated how these two states interact. Women (final N=76) were assigned to one of four conditions: rate disgust stimuli then watch a pornographic clip; watch a pornographic clip then rate disgust stimuli; rate fear stimuli then watch a pornographic clip; or watch a pornographic clip then rate fear stimuli. Women’s genital sexual arousal was measured with vaginal photoplethysmography and their disgust and fear reactions were measured via self-report. We did not find that baseline disgust propensity predicted sexual arousal in women who were exposed to neutral stimuli before erotic content. In the Erotic-before-Disgust condition we did not find that sexual arousal straightforwardly predicted decreased image disgust ratings. However, we did find some evidence that sexual arousal increased self-reported disgust in women with high trait disgust and sexual arousal decreased self-reported disgust in women with low trait disgust. Women who were exposed to disgusting images before erotic content showed significantly less sexual arousal than women in the control condition or women exposed to fear-inducing images before erotic content. In the Disgust-before-Erotic condition the degree of self-reported disgust was negatively correlated with genital sexual arousal. Hence, in the conflict between the ultimate goals of reproduction and disease avoidance, cues of the presence of pathogens significantly reduce the motivation to engage in mating behaviors that, by their nature, entail a risk of pathogen transmission.     

Disgust sensitivity predicts sociosexuality across cultures

Restricted sociosexuality has been linked to sexual disgust, suggesting that decreasing sexual behavior may be a pathogen avoidance technique. Using the behavioral immune system framework, which posits that humans experience disgust after exposure to pathogen cues, we replicate and expand on previous studies by analyzing the influence of three domains of disgust (sexual, moral, pathogen) on psychological (desire and attitude) and behavioral domains of sociosexuality (SOI) in four diverse samples: American university students (n = 155), Salvadoran community members (n = 98), a global online sample (n = 359), and a four-country online sample (US, India, Italy, and Brazil; n = 822) collected during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. In contrast with previous studies, we account for shared variance in sexual, pathogen, and moral disgust by entering all three in a multiple regression to predict composite SOI. In both large samples, sexual disgust and pathogen disgust had opposing effects on composite SOI; that is, higher sexual disgust and lower pathogen disgust were associated with more restricted composite SOI. Additionally, we constructed a multi-group structural equation model (SEM) to determine the impact of each domain of disgust on each domain of SOI across all our samples simultaneously, while controlling for age and sex. Within this model we also assessed how the psychological domains of SOI – attitude and desire – mediate the relationship between disgust and sociosexual behavior. Pathogen disgust positively predicted SOI attitude and desire, but not behavior, consistently across all groups. SOI behavior was only predicted by pathogen disgust when mediated by SOI attitude, again across all groups, suggesting that behavior seems to be driven largely by the psychological facets of SOI. We discuss these findings in light of the behavioral immune system and the bet-hedging hypothesis, which make opposing predictions on the relationship between infection risk and sexual behavior.     

Disgust sensitivity is negatively associated with immune system activity in early pregnancy: Direct support for the Compensatory Prophylaxis Hypothesis

According to the Compensatory Prophylaxis Hypothesis (CPH), disgust may be considered a part of the behavioral immune system, adjusting as a function of immunocompetence. Early pregnancy involves modulation of a complex network of various immune-related factors, but only a few studies so far have focused on disgust sensitivity in pregnant women in the context of the CPH. This study aimed to examine associations between disgust sensitivity and immune activity indices, cytokine levels, and white blood cell (WBC) count in pregnant women. The sample included 78 women in the 1st trimester of pregnancy. Higher disgust sensitivity (Disgust Scale-Revised; DS-R) was significantly associated with decreased levels of IL-1β, IL-2 IL-4, IL-7, IL-17, Eotaxin, MCP-1 (MCAF), and RANTES in blood serum. This model explained 17.5% of the total DS-R score variability. Using the DS-R subscales, the Contamination disgust was significantly associated with levels of FGF basic, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-17A, G-CSF, MCP-1 (MCAF), MIP-1α, PDGF-BB, and RANTES, and the Core disgust was significantly associated with levels of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-17A, Eotaxin, G-CSF, IP-10, MCP-1 (MCAF), PDGF-BB, and TNF-α. Disgust sensitivity was not associated with WBC count. Disgust may reflect and compensate for insufficient immune adaptation in early pregnancy, suggesting the potential clinical significance of this common prenatal symptom.     

Investigating the relationship between olfactory acuity,disgust, and mating strategies

Although humans' sense of smell is relatively diminished compared to other species, olfaction is still a central sensory modality through which people evaluate both potential threats and prospective romantic partners. Despite olfaction's role in interpersonal relationships and disease avoidant responses, however, it remains unknown whether variation in olfactory acuity is associated with disease- and mating-relevant psychological constructs and behaviors. In the current exploratory study, we examined the relationships between olfactory acuity, disgust sensitivity, and mating strategies in a sample of undergraduate students (N = 162) at a university in the Southern United States using an extended assessment of olfactory acuity (measuring olfactory threshold, discrimination, and identification). Results revealed that people with greater discrimination acuity were higher in dispositional sexual disgust, but not pathogen or moral disgust. People with greater discrimination acuity were also less inclined towards short-term mating. Further, sexual disgust mediated the relationship between discrimination acuity and short-term mating orientation. These results provide further evidence for the importance of olfaction and olfaction-related disgust in close relationships.     

Menstrual cycle-related changes in plasma oxytocin are relevant to normal sexual function in healthy women

Circulating levels of the neuro-hypophysial nonapeptide oxytocin increase during sexual arousal and orgasm in both men and women. A few studies have evaluated the effect of the menstrual cycle on plasma oxytocin in normally cycling, sexually active, healthy fertile women using or not using contraceptive pills. In 20 ovulating women and 10 women taking an oral contraceptive (group 1 and group 2, respectively), sexual function, hormonal profile, and plasma oxytocin (OT) were evaluated throughout the menstrual cycle. In group 1, plasma OT was significantly lower during the luteal phase in comparison with both the follicular and ovulatory phases. Plasma oxytocin was significantly correlated with the lubrication domain of the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) during the luteal phase and showed a trend towards statistical significance during the follicular phase. In group 2, plasma OT did not show any significant fluctuation throughout the menstrual cycle, even though a significant correlation was evident with both the arousal and the lubrication domain of the FSFI during the assumption of the contraceptive pill. These findings suggest that plasma OT fluctuates throughout the menstrual cycle in normally cycling healthy fertile women with adequate sexual activity but not taking any oral contraceptive pill. Moreover, plasma OT levels significantly relates to the genital lubrication in both women taking and not taking oral contraceptive pill apparently confirming its role in peripheral activation of sexual function.     

Disgust sensitivity, obesity stigma, and gender: contamination psychology predicts weight bias for women, not men

Recent research has established a link between disgust sensitivity and stigmatizing reactions to various groups, including obese individuals. However, previous research has overlooked disgust's multiple evolved functions. Here, we investigated whether the link between disgust sensitivity and obesity stigma is specific to pathogen disgust, or whether sexual disgust and moral disgust--two separate functional domains--also relate to negative attitudes toward obese individuals. Additionally, we investigated whether sex differences exist in the manner disgust sensitivity predicts obesity stigma, whether the sexes differ across the subtypes of obesity bias independent of disgust sensitivity, and last, the association between participants' BMI and different subtypes of obesity stigma. In study 1 (N = 92), we established that obesity elicits pathogen, sexual, and moral disgust. In study 2, we investigated the relationship between these types of disgust sensitivity and obesity stigma. Participants (N = 387) reported their level of disgust toward various pathogen, sexual, and moral acts and their attitudes toward obese individuals. For women, but not men, increased pathogen disgust sensitivity predicted more negative attitudes toward obese individuals. Men reported more negative general attitudes toward obese individuals whereas women reported greater fear of becoming obese. The sexes also differed in how their own BMI related to the subtypes of obesity stigma. These findings indicate that pathogen disgust sensitivity plays a role in obesity stigma, specifically for women. Defining the scope of disgust's activation in response to obesity and its relationship with other variables can help identify possible mechanisms for understanding and ultimately alleviating prejudice and discrimination.     

A change of osteocalcin (OC) and tartrate resistant acid phosphatase 5b (TRACP-5b) with the menstrual cycle

Bone metabolism markers associated with 4 menstrual cycle phases were evaluated in 14 healthy young females without menstrual disorder. Menstrual cycle phases were confirmed with basal body temperature for 3 months, luteinizing hormone kits, and sexual hormone concentrations of serum. The bone metabolism markers used were osteocalcin (OC), which was measured by immunoradiometric assay (IRMA), and tartrate resistant acid phosphatase 5b (TRACP-5b), which was measured by enzyme immunometric assay (EIA). The highest values of OC and TRACP-5b were observed in the ovulation phase, and TRACP-5b increased significantly when compared with levels in the menstrual phase (p<0.05). Furthermore, the changes in sex-hormone secretion involved in OC and TRACP-5b showed specific patterns during the menstrual cycle. In other words, TRACP-5b levels are influenced by sex hormones produced during the menstrual period and are based on the bone-formation status. Therefore, it is presumed that the TRACP-5b levels during ovulation play a central role in bone formation and bone metabolism.     

Women's preferences for masculinity in male faces are predicted by pathogen disgust,but not by moral or sexual disgust

Because women's preferences for male masculinity reflect tradeoffs between the benefits of greater genetic health and the costs of lower paternal investment, variables that affect the importance of these costs and benefits also affect masculinity preferences. Concern about disease and pathogens may be one such variable. Here we show that disgust sensitivity in the pathogen domain is positively correlated with facial masculinity preferences, but disgust sensitivity in the moral and sexual domains is not. Our findings present novel evidence that systematic variation in women's preferences for masculine men reflects factors that influence how women resolve the tradeoff between the benefits and costs associated with choosing a masculine partner.     

Chimpanzee genital swelling and its role in the pattern of sociosexual behavior

Behavioral observations were made on thirteen female and seven male adult group-living chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). The behavioral data were analyzed as a function of the day of the females' menstrual cycles to explore the possible interrelationship between genital swelling and sociosexual behavior of female chimpanzees. Copulatory behavior was confined almost entirely to the period of genital swelling and the occurrence of male-to-female genital inspection (both female- and male-initiated) was negatively correlated with the days from swelling onset, i.e., as the presumed day of ovulation approached, genital inspection decreased, while copulatory behavior increased. In addition, more females groomed their male cagemates during the luteal phase than in the follicular phase of their cycles, whereas male-to-female grooming was positively correlated with the progress of the cycle, with peaks during the time of swelling onset and menstruation. The profile of sociosexual behavior observed throughout the menstrual cycle suggested that, although chimpanzees exhibit an extended period of sexual receptivity and genital swelling, the presumed fertile period is not concealed. The role of genital swelling in chimpanzees is discussed in relation to the possible hormonal effect on female sexuality and the evolution of chimpanzee mating strategies. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Female menstrual cyclicity and sexual behavior in stumptail Macaques (Macaca arctoides)

The sexual behavior and female reproductive cycles of a captive group of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides)were monitored during a 12-month period. The data, consisting of 303 ad libitummounts and copulations and 125 hr of focal-female testing, were analyzed by their frequency of occurrence during the three hormonal phases of the female menstrual cycle. Regularly cycling females exhibited statistically higher frequencies of all sexual behaviors compared to the amenorrheal controls. Contrary to previous reports which indicate no variation in sexual behavior throughout the reproductive cycle in this species, our data show marked increases in copulations during the periovulatory phase. Male dominance rank is associated with sexual behavior only at midcycle.     

The reproductive cycle of the crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis)

Characteristic changes in the menstrual cycle of the crab-eating macaque were evaluated. Cyclical changes in type and abundance of exfoliated cells in vaginal smears as well as the ferning pattern of cervical mucus were observed. These indices were useful in predicting approximate ovulation time. The cyclical changes in sexual skin swelling and/or coloration were detected only in adolescent females. Micro-sections from ovaries of autopsied animals revealed large Graafian follicle formations often rupturing by day fourteen of the cycle. Length of the menstrual cycle ranged from 26–38 days with a modal value of 28 days.This research has been supported by Ford Foundation Grant No. 710-0287.     

The menstrual cycle and its effect on behaviour in the Talapoin monkey (Miopithecus talapoin)

The menstrual cycles of 14 captive Talapoin monkeys ( Miopithecus talapoin ) were studied by making serial observations on the vaginal smears and sexual skin swellings for up to 15 months. Twelve of these females menstruated and the mean duration of their cycle was32–9 days (95% confidence limits 28.0-37.7). The corresponding value for the seven most regular females was 33.0 days (29.1-36.8). There were rhythmic changes in the vaginal smears and sexual skin during the menstrual cycle. Maximum cornification of the smears and maximum sexual skin swelling were observed at midcycle; the sexual skin deflated and the smear became less cornified during the luteal phase. The follicular phase—i.e. from menstruation to maximum skin swelling lasted 20.4 days with a wide distribution, in contrast to the mean duration of the luteal phase (13.7 days) which showed a pronounced peak at 14 days. The menstrual cycle of the talapoin thus resembles those of certain other Old World monkeys that exhibit perineal sexual skin swelling.
Sexual behaviour of the male and female was maximal near the female's midcycle and minimal during the luteal phase, with intermediate values in the follicular phase. The males were most aggressive towards other females of the group when one female was at midcycle; there were no consistent changes in aggression between the male and the female herself. The number of times one animal looks at another (a characteristic behaviour pattern in talapoins) was measured and occurred most often at midcycle, but other preliminary observations indicated a more pronounced correlation between this behaviour pattern and an animal's position in the hierarchy.     

Physiological predictors of leptin vary during menses and ovulation in healthy women

Although research has shown interactions between the reproductive system and energy homeostasis, it is not clear how environmental or behavioral factors may factor into these associations. Here we aimed to determine how changes in reproductive state (i.e., phase of the menstrual cycle) and other behavioral and physiological factors may influence leptin levels in healthy women, as well as how sexual activity may play a role in leptin modulation. We collected serum and saliva from 32 healthy women and measured leptin, estradiol, and progesterone. Participants also completed surveys of demographics, health and sexual behaviors, and physical activity. Leptin was predicted by meals per day and missed meals at both menses and ovulation. However, estradiol and physical activity were stronger predictors of leptin at menses, while sexual activity was a stronger predictor of leptin at ovulation. These findings suggest that predictors of serum leptin, and possibly energy storage and expenditure, vary across the menstrual cycle.     

Femininity and masculinity across the menstrual cycle: a relation to mate value

Numerous studies have shown that menstrual cycle related variations in sex hormones influence various cognitive processes. These shifts are considered as the evidence for a hormone-mediated adaptive design underlying human mating motivation. In a series of related studies we have shown that (i) femininity does not vary across the menstrual cycle, whereas masculinity is the most pronounced during the fertile period, (ii) masculinity, but not femininity, predicts shifts in spatial cognition across the menstrual cycle, and (iii) women with different positions on masculinity and femininity dimensions differ in their self-perceived mate value. These results suggest that (i) there might be a hormone mediated psychological mechanism making a woman more assertive and dominant during a short time-window when the conception is likely, (ii) menstrual cycle related shifts in cognitive abilities and mating motivation might have a common hormonal mechanism, and (iii) women's mate value (and indirectly her reproductive success) depends upon both feminine and masculine traits.     

Female perineal swelling and its effects on male sexual arousal: An apparent sexual releaser in the chacma baboon (Papio ursinus)

The function of the periodic perineal swelling that females of some primate species show in relation to their menstrual cycle has long puzzled many scientists. A role in female attractiveness was suspected, but fluctuations in female behaviors concomitant to these changes in female appearance have always prevented its assessment. By attaching a plastic reproduction of a fully swollen perineum to ovariectomized female chacma baboons, it has finally been demonstrated that the sexual swelling hasan important function in the sexual communication of this species. It induces sexual arousal in male conspecifics. The way the perineal swelling acts and other characteristic aspects of this feature appear to qualify it as a releaser for sexual behavior.     

Sexual coercion and forced in-pair copulation as sperm competition tactics in humans

Rape of women by men might be generated either by a specialized rape adaptation or as a by-product of other psychological adaptations. Although increasing number of sexual partners is a proposed benefit of rape according to the “rape as an adaptation” and the “rape as a by-product” hypotheses, neither hypothesis addresses directly why some men rape their long-term partners, to whom they already have sexual access. In two studies we tested specific hypotheses derived from the general hypothesis that sexual coercion in the context of an intimate relationship may function as a sperm competition tactic. We hypothesized that men’s sexual coercion in the context of an intimate relationship is related positively to his partner’s perceived infidelities and that men’s sexual coercion is related positively to their mate retention behaviors (behaviors designed to prevent a partner’s infidelity). The results from Study 1 (self-reports from 246 men) and Study 2 (partner-reports from 276 women) supported the hypotheses. The Discussion section addresses limitations of this research and highlights future directions for research on sexual coercion in intimate relationships.