Cytochrome b gene sequence divergence of seven sisorid species of catfish genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Glyptothorax</Emphasis> (siluriformes,sisoridae) from India

Samples of seven Sisorid catfish species of the genus Glyptothorax (G. garhwali, G. dakpathari, G. brevipinnis, G. ngapang, G. granulus, G. ventrolineatus, and G. davissinghi) were collected from the Himalayan region and the Western Ghats of India. They were analyzed for the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (Cyt b). Out of 1152 nucleotide positions analyzed, 269 (23.3%) were found to be variable and 235 (20.3%) were parsimoniously informative. The sequences showed 111 (9.6%) fourfold degenerate sites. The overall transition/transversion bias was R = 3.457. The average proportion of base substitutions measured as P-distance for all sequences of seven Glyptothorax species and other five species comprising four comparison groups was intraspecies, P = 0.17 ± 0.05%, intragenus, P = 10.75 ± 0.48%, intrafamily, P = 20.07 ± 1.43%, and intraorder, P = 21.10 ± 0.45%. Within the Glyptothorax genus maximum divergence was obtained among G. brevipinnis sequences, whereas the least divergence was obtained within G. davissinghi. The phylogenetic trees for 193 and 47 sequences of Sisorid catfishes together were developed using the Cyt b gene and four different analytical approaches: Bayesian (BA), neighbour-joining (NJ), maximum parsimony (MP), and maximum likelihood (ML). The analysis revealed a monophyletic origin for the all investigated representatives of the genus Glyptothorax (99, 100, 99, and 73% support level in our BA, NJ, MP, and ML analyses respectively) and with some reservations for Sisoridae, which is the principal family investigated. The monophyletic origin of the two subfamilies of Sisorid catfish defined in the literature was partly also supported by molecular phylogenetic data.     

Evolution of the African slippery frogs (Anura: Conraua), including the world’s largest living frog

Although Conraua goliath is well known as the largest living frog species, the diversity and evolution of the genus Conraua across sub-Saharan Africa remain poorly understood. We present multilocus phylogenetic analyses of the six currently recognized species that provide insights into divergence times, biogeography, body size evolution and undescribed species. An analysis of divergence times demonstrates that crown-group Conraua arose some time during the latest Oligocene to mid-Miocene followed by divergence into major lineages in the mid-Miocene that may reflect the fragmentation of widespread tropical forests in Africa that began at this time. We find three pairs of sister species, C. crassipes + C. beccarii, C. alleni + C. derooi and C. goliath + C. robusta, each of which diverged during the Miocene. These relationships reject phylogenetic hypotheses based solely on biogeography as the geographically peripheral C. beccarii from north-eastern Africa is nested within western African species and the Central African species do not form a clade. Our species delimitation analyses provide support for undescribed species in C. alleni, C. beccarii and C. derooi, and possibly C. crassipes, suggesting that the current taxonomy substantially underestimates species diversity. There is no clear directional trend of either increasing or decreasing body size in Conraua and the three largest species do not form a clade. With a robust phylogenetic hypothesis in hand, further field-based studies are needed to understand the evolution of morphology and life history in this charismatic African anuran clade.     

Molecular phylogenetics of mouse opossums: new findings on the phylogeny of Thylamys (Didelphimorphia,Didelphidae)

The mouse opossums of the genus Thylamys constitute a group of species mainly adapted to open xeric‐like habitats and restricted to the southern portion of South America. We used molecular data (mitochondrial and nuclear sequences) to evaluate the phylogenetic and biogeographical relationships of all currently known living species of the genus, recognizing a new taxon from the middle and high elevations of the Peruvian Andes and evaluating the phylogenetic structuring within T. pallidior and T. elegans, as well as the validity of T. sponsorius, T. cinderella and T. tatei, and the haplogroups recognized within T. pusillus. Our results confirm the monophyly of the genus and that the Caatinga and the Cerrado inhabitants Thylamys karimii and T. velutinus are the most basal species in the radiation of Thylamys. We also calibrated a molecular clock which hypothesized a time of origin of the genus of about 24 My, with most species differentiating in middle and late Miocene and Plio‐Pleistocene times of South America.     

Phylogenetic,Inter, and Intraspecific Sequence Analysis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">spo0A</Emphasis> Gene of the Genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Geobacillus</Emphasis>

In this work, the variability of spo0A gene in the genus Geobacillus and applicability of this gene for the taxonomy within this genus were evaluated. The protein Spo0A is the master regulator of the endospore-forming process in the all endospore-forming bacteria. Geobacillus genus-specific primers GEOSPO were designed based on the sequences of Geobacillus spo0A gene available through the public databases. Inter and intraspecific variability of Geobacillus spo0A gene was determined after sequencing of the GEOSPO-PCR products. Geobacillus spo0A sequence analysis showed that three species—Geobacillus thermodenitrificans, G. stearothermophilus, and G. jurassicus—could be easily identified. Similarity between the sequences of these species and the other species were in the range of 83.3%–92.0%. In contrast, intraspecific similarity of G. thermodenitrificans and G. stearothermophilus was high—above 99.0%. Similarity of spo0A sequences of G. subterraneus–G. uzenensis species cluster also matched this interval. Intercluster similarity between G. lituanicus–G. thermoleovorans–G. kaustophilus–G. vulcani and G. thermocatenulatus–G. gargensis–G. caldoxylosilyticus–G. toebii–G. thermoglucosidasius species clusters, as well as interspecific similarity within these two clusters was in the range of the intraspecific similarity determined for G. thermodenitrificans and G. stearothermophilus. It was also determined that spo0A cannot be used as the phylogenetic marker for the genus Geobacillus.     

Fine‐ and Broad‐Scale Approaches to Understanding the Evolution of Aggression in Crickets

Male field crickets frequently engage in agonistic contests to establish dominance in social interactions and gain access to mate attraction territories. Crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) are often used as a model taxon to study aggression, but limited documentation of aggression in some cricket species hinders our understanding of its evolutionary costs and benefits. Our study investigated cricket aggression at two scales: the within‐species scale for two cricket species, Gryllus assimilis and G. veletis, whose aggression had not been adequately documented and the among‐species scale to detect evolutionary patterns in species’ levels of aggression. In both G. veletis and G. assimilis, winners spent more time being aggressive than losers, but they were not larger or heavier. Collectively, our results reveal that G. veletis males are more aggressive than G. assimilis. Male G. veletis had higher aggression scores that male G. assimilis. The majority of G. veletis contests escalated to grappling (a highly aggressive behavior), while less than one quarter of G. assimilis contests escalated to grappling. Further, G. veletis males transitioned between two of the most aggressive behaviors most often while G. assimilis transitioned between two of the least aggressive behaviors most often. We integrate this new information on aggression for G. assimilis and G. veletis with previously documented aggression data for many cricket species to investigate aggression in a broader evolutionary context than previously possible. Within a phylogenetic context, we test the hypothesis that species whose males use burrows from which to call and attract females are more aggressive than species with non‐burrowing males. We found evidence consistent with this hypothesis; species with burrowing males tended to be more aggressive than species with non‐burrowing males. Together, our study provides fine‐scale understanding of aggression in two cricket species and broad‐scale evolutionary context for aggression across cricket species.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pontibacter rhizosphera</Emphasis> sp. nov., isolated from rhizosphere soil of an Indian medicinal plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nerium indicum</Emphasis>

A gram-negative, motile, straight to curved rod shaped, pink pigmented bacterium was isolated from a soil sample collected from the rhizosphere of an Indian medicinal plant, Nerium indicum (Chuvanna arali) and subjected to a detailed polyphasic taxonomic study. The strain, designated as IMTB-1969^T, matched with most of the phenotypic and chemotaxonomic properties of the genus Pontibacter and represents a novel species. The major fatty acids of the strain were monounsaturated iso/anteiso branched C17 fatty acids (45.1%) and iso-C15:0 (16.5%). MK-7 was the predominant isoprenoid quinone. According to 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, strain IMTB-1969^T was indicated to belonged to the phylum Bacteroidetes and further phylogenetic analysis revealed that the strain IMTB-1969^T belongs to the family Cytophagaceae and genus Pontibacter. The highest 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity was with Pontibacter korlensis CCTCC AB 206081^T (97.2%) and lower sequence similarity was observed with other species in the genus Pontibacter (95.9–94.0%). DNA–DNA relatedness study of the strain IMTB-1969^T confirmed that it represents a novel species. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 52.2 (±0.5) mol%. The results of physiological and biochemical tests allowed the genotypic and phenotypic distinction of strain IMTB-1969^T from its closest phylogenetic relatives. The strain IMTB-1969^T should be classified as novel species of the genus Pontibacter, for which the name Pontibacter rhizosphera sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is IMTB-1969^T (=MTCC 10673^T = DSM 24399^T).     

GAYLIELLA GEN. NOV. IN THE TRIBE CERAMIEAE (CERAMIACEAE,RHODOPHYTA) BASED ON MOLECULAR AND MORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE1

On the basis of comparative morphology and phylogenetic analyses of rbcL and LSU rDNA sequence data, a new genus, Gayliella gen. nov., is proposed to accommodate the Ceramium flaccidum complex (C. flaccidum, C. byssoideum, C. gracillimum var. byssoideum, and C. taylorii), C. fimbriatum, and a previously undescribed species from Australia. C. transversale is reinstated and recognized as a distinct species. Through this study, G. flaccida (Kützing) comb. nov., G. transversalis (Collins et Hervey) comb. nov., G. fimbriata (Setchell et N. L. Gardner) comb. nov., G. taylorii comb. nov., G. mazoyerae sp. nov., and G. womersleyi sp. nov. are based on detailed comparative morphology. The species referred to as C. flaccidum and C. dawsonii from Brazil also belong to the new genus. Comparison of Gayliella with Ceramium shows that it differs from the latter by having an alternate branching pattern; three cortical initials per periaxial cell, of which the third is directed basipetally and divides horizontally; and unicellular rhizoids produced from periaxial cells. Our phylogenetic analyses of rbcL and LSU rDNA gene sequence data confirm that Gayliella gen. nov. represents a monophyletic clade distinct from most Ceramium species including the type species, C. virgatum. We also transfer C. recticorticum to the new genus Gayliella.     

Molecular phylogeny of the New World gecko genus Homonota (Squamata: Phyllodactylidae)

The genus Homonota was described by Gray (1845) and currently includes 10 species: Homonota andicola, H. borellii, H. darwinii, H. fasciata, H. rupicola, H. taragui, H. underwoodi, H. uruguayensis, H. williamsii & H. whitii and one subspecies of H. darwinii (H. darwinii macrocephala). It is distributed from 15° latitude south in southern Brazil, through much of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina to 54° south in Patagonia and across multiple different habitats. Several morphological taxonomic studies on a subset of these species have been published, but no molecular phylogenetic hypotheses are available for the genus. The objective of this study is to present a molecular phylogenetic hypothesis for all the described species in the genus. We sequenced two mitochondrial genes (cyt‐b & 12S: 1745 bp), seven nuclear protein coding (RBMX, DMLX, NKTR, PLRL, SINCAIP, MXRA5, ACA4: 5804 bp) and two anonymous nuclear loci (30Hb, 19Hb: 1306 bp) and implemented traditional concatenated analyses (MP, ML, BI) as well as species‐tree (*beast ) approaches. All methods recovered almost the same topology. We recovered the genus Homonota as monophyletic with strong statistical support. Within Homonota, there are three strongly supported clades (whitii, borellii and fasciata), which differ from those previously proposed based on scale shape, osteology, myology and quantitative characters. Detailed morphological analyses based on this highly resolved and well‐supported phylogeny will provide a framework for understanding morphological evolution and historical biogeography of this phenotypically conservative genus. We hypothesize that extensive marine transgressions during Middle and Late Miocene most probably isolated the ancestors of the three main clades in eastern Uruguay (borellii group), north‐western Argentina‐southern Bolivia (fasciata group), and central‐western Argentina (whitii group). Phylogeographic and morphological/morphometric analyses coupled with paleo‐niche modelling are needed to better understand its biogeographical history.     

Phylogenetic relationships among species of the Neotropical genus Graomys (Rodentia: Cricetidae): contrasting patterns of skull morphometric variation and genetic divergence

Subtle differences of external traits characterize species of rodents in the Neotropical genus Graomys. On the other hand, the species differ markedly in chromosome number. In the present study, we evaluate the possible evolutionary forces involved in the evolution of the genus by assessing the degree of intra‐ and interspecific genetic and morphological variation. A phylogenetic analysis demonstrates the existence of at least three species with high levels of genetic distance (10%), which diverged between 1 and 1.5 Mya. Neither Graomys griseoflavus, nor Graomys chacoensis present marked phylogeographical structure. Regarding morphological characters, these species show shape differences in the skull that could be attributable to differences in the local conditions they inhabit, being more marked in G. griseoflavus than in G. chacoensis. The skull shape of G. chacoensis could have evolved under genetic drift, whereas evidence reported in the present study indicates that this character could be under selective pressures in G. griseoflavus. Reconstruction of the ancestral area suggests that G. griseoflavus originated in the central Monte desert, whereas G. chacoensis originated in the Chaco ecoregion surrounding the austral extreme of the Yungas rainforest. Subsequently, both species would have undergone demographic and geographical expansions almost simultaneously, starting approximately 150 000–175 000 years ago. The complex evolutionary history of the genus could be partly explained by the decoupling of morphological, karyological and molecular traits.     

Systematics of spiny‐backed treefrogs (Hylidae: Osteocephalus): an Amazonian puzzle

Spiny‐backed tree frogs of the genus Osteocephalus are conspicuous components of the tropical wet forests of the Amazon and the Guiana Shield. Here, we revise the phylogenetic relationships of Osteocephalus and its sister group Tepuihyla, using up to 6134 bp of DNA sequences of nine mitochondrial and one nuclear gene for 338 specimens from eight countries and 218 localities, representing 89% of the 28 currently recognized nominal species. Our phylogenetic analyses reveal (i) the paraphyly of Osteocephalus with respect to Tepuihyla, (ii) the placement of ‘Hyla’ warreni as sister to Tepuihyla, (iii) the non‐monophyly of several currently recognized species within Osteocephalus and (iv) the presence of low (<1%) and overlapping genetic distances among phenotypically well‐characterized nominal species (e.g. O. taurinus and O. oophagus) for the 16S gene fragment used in amphibian DNA barcoding. We propose a new taxonomy, securing the monophyly of Osteocephalus and Tepuihyla by rearranging and redefining the content of both genera and also erect a new genus for the sister group of Osteocephalus. The colouration of newly metamorphosed individuals is proposed as a morphological synapomorphy for Osteocephalus. We recognize and define five monophyletic species groups within Osteocephalus, synonymize three species of Osteocephalus (O. germani, O. phasmatus and O. vilmae) and three species of Tepuihyla (T. celsae, T. galani and T. talbergae) and reallocate three species (Hyla helenae to Osteocephalus, O. exophthalmus to Tepuihyla and O. pearsoni to Dryaderces gen. n.). Furthermore, we flag nine putative new species (an increase to 138% of the current diversity). We conclude that species numbers are largely underestimated, with most hidden diversity centred on widespread and polymorphic nominal species. The evolutionary origin of breeding strategies within Osteocephalus is discussed in the light of this new phylogenetic hypothesis, and a novel type of amplexus (gular amplexus) is described.     

Molecular phylogeny of the deep‐sea penaeid shrimp genus Parapenaeus (Crustacea: Decapoda: Dendrobranchiata)

The commercial deep‐sea penaeid shrimp genus Parapenaeus contains 15 species, three subspecies and two forms in the Indo‐West Pacific and the Atlantic. Novel nucleotide sequence data from five different genes (COI, 16S, 12S, NaK and PEPCK) were collected to estimate phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic status amongst all but one subspecies in this genus. The phylogenetic results only support two of the four species groups previously proposed for this genus and indicate an evolution direction of the genital organs from simple to complex. The present results suggest that Parapenaeus originated in the shallow waters of the West Pacific with subsequent migration to the deep sea and the Atlantic. The molecular data reveal that there was probably misidentification of females between Parapenaeus australiensis and Parapenaeus ruberoculatus, with females previously assigned as P. australiensis likely being the females of P. ruberoculatus, while material identified as P. australiensis forma nodosa being the true P. australiensis females. On the other hand, Parapenaeus longipes forma denticulata truly represents a variation of the same species, while the subspecies Parapenaeus fissuroides indicus warrants a specific rank.     

Molecular phylogenetic analyses of nuclear and plastid DNA sequences support dysploid and polyploid chromosome number changes and reticulate evolution in the diversification of Melampodium (Millerieae, Asteraceae)

Chromosome evolution (including polyploidy, dysploidy, and structural changes) as well as hybridization and introgression are recognized as important aspects in plant speciation. A suitable group for investigating the evolutionary role of chromosome number changes and reticulation is the medium-sized genus Melampodium (Millerieae, Asteraceae), which contains several chromosome base numbers (x = 9, 10, 11, 12, 14) and a number of polyploid species, including putative allopolyploids. A molecular phylogenetic analysis employing both nuclear (ITS) and plastid (matK) DNA sequences, and including all species of the genus, suggests that chromosome base numbers are predictive of evolutionary lineages within Melampodium. Dysploidy, therefore, has clearly been important during evolution of the group. Reticulate evolution is evident with allopolyploids, which prevail over autopolyploids and several of which are confirmed here for the first time, and also (but less often) on the diploid level. Within sect. Melampodium, the complex pattern of bifurcating phylogenetic structure among diploid taxa overlain by reticulate relationships from allopolyploids has non-trivial implications for intrasectional classification.     

Genetic variation and phylogeny of Scandinavian species of Grania (Annelida: Clitellata: Enchytraeidae), with the discovery of a cryptic species

Individuals of five nominal species of Grania (Annelida: Clitellata: Enchytraeidae) were collected from locations in Sweden, Norway and France, for studies on the intraspecific variation at the Cytochrome Oxidase I (COI) locus of mitochondrial DNA and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear DNA. It was found that the previously described morphospecies in general contain low variation compared to the between‐species variation in both loci. In one instance, however, an individual morphologically indistinguishable from G. ovitheca was found to be deviant and instead cluster with G. postclitellochaeta both by COI and ITS. We describe this individual as a new species: G. occulta sp.n. Furthermore, phylogenetic analyses were conducted, showing a close relationship between G. variochaeta, G. occulta, G. ovitheca and G. postclitellochaeta, as well as between G. pusilla and G. maricola. Using the results from the phylogenetic analyses, we discuss the evolution of morphological characters in Scandinavian species of Grania.     

Phylogenetic relationships in genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arachis</Emphasis> based on ITS and 5.8S rDNA sequences

Background  

The genus Arachis comprises 80 species and it is subdivided into nine taxonomic sections (Arachis, Caulorrhizae, Erectoides, Extranervosae, Heteranthae, Procumbentes, Rhizomatosae, Trierectoides, and Triseminatae). This genus is naturally confined to South America and most of its species are native to Brazil. In order to provide a better understanding of the evolution of the genus, we reconstructed the phylogeny of 45 species using the variation observed on nucleotide sequences in internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1 and ITS2) and 5.8 S of nuclear ribosomal DNA.     

Glass in the water: Molecular phylogenetics and evolution of Indian glassy perchlets (Teleostei: Ambassidae)

Glassfishes of the family Ambassidae, comprising around 50 species, are distributed in the Indo‐West Pacific where they inhabit marine, estuarine, and freshwater ecosystems. We investigated for the first time the molecular phylogenetic and evolutionary relationships of this group using a combined dataset of mitochondrial and nuclear genes, particularly focusing on the taxa occurring in the Indian subcontinent. Results revealed that marine and freshwater genera of Ambassidae diverged during the Paleocene (~62 mya). The enigmatic monotypic genus Chanda is nested within the larger clade currently recognized as Parambassis, indicating its paraphyly. Based on cleared and stained osteological preparations and phylogenetic placement of Chanda nama, we hypothesize that the elongated and protruding lower jaw is an autapomorphic character that might have evolved for the lepidophagous habit of the species. The southern Indian species of Parambassis, Parambassis dayi, and Parambassis thomassi, which formed a monophyletic group, probably diverged from other species of Parambassis and Chanda nama around the Eocene (~42 mya) and can potentially be recognized as a distinct genus in view of the apomorphic characters such as the presence of serration on the ventral fringe of interopercle, densely serrated palatine and ectopterygoid, and the presence of more than 30 serrations along the lower preopercle and the posterior edge. Our analysis provides new insights into the evolution and phylogenetic relationships of glassy perchlets, including detailed relationships among the Indian species within this family.     

Gymnoxanthella radiolariae gen. et sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), a dinoflagellate symbiont from solitary polycystine radiolarians

The symbiotic dinoflagellate Gymnoxanthella radiolariae T. Yuasa et T. Horiguchi gen. et sp. nov. isolated from polycystine radiolarians is described herein based on light, scanning and transmission electron microscopy as well as molecular phylogenetic analyses of SSU and LSU rDNA sequences. Motile cells of G. radiolariae were obtained in culture, and appeared to be unarmored. The cells were 9.1–11.4 μm long and 5.7–9.4 μm wide, and oval to elongate oval in the ventral view. They possessed an counterclockwise horseshoe‐shaped apical groove, a nuclear envelope with vesicular chambers, cingulum displacement with one cingulum width, and the nuclear fibrous connective; all of these are characteristics of Gymnodinium sensu stricto (Gymnodinium s.s.). Molecular phylogenetic analyses also indicated that G. radiolariae belongs to the clade of Gymnodinium s.s. However, in our molecular phylogenetic trees, G. radiolariae was distantly related to Gymnodinium fuscum, the type species of Gymnodinium. Based on the consistent morphological, genetic, and ecological divergence of our species with the other genera and species of Gymnodinium s.s., we considered it justified to erect a new, separate genus and species G. radiolariae gen. et sp. nov. As for the peridinioid symbiont of radiolarians, Brandtodinium has been erected as a new genus instead of Zooxanthella, but the name Zooxanthella is still valid. Brandtodinium is a junior synonym of Zooxanthella. Our results suggest that at least two dinoflagellate symbiont species, peridinioid Zooxanthella nutricula and gymnodinioid G. radiolariae, exist in radiolarians, and that they may have been mixed and reported as “Z. nutricula” since the 19th century.     

Is Cyclocardia (Conrad) a wastebasket taxon? Exploring the phylogeny of the most diverse genus of the Carditidae (Archiheterodonta,Bivalvia)

The carditid genus Cyclocardia is currently the most diverse genus of the family, including nearly 180 nominal species encompassing wide stratigraphical (Cretaceous–Recent) and geographical (Antarctica, South and North America, Europe, Africa, Alaska, Russia, Japan and New Zealand) ranges. Due to the lack of autapomorphies in the diagnosis of the genus and its large account of species, we re-evaluate the systematic and phylogenetic status of Cyclocardia. We applied three approaches: bibliographic revision, phylogenetic analysis and an exploration of morphological disparity. We used a shell–character matrix comprising 65 taxa (2 outgroups, 29 non-Cyclocardia carditids and 28 species of Cyclocardia) for phylogenetic and disparity analyses. Maximum Observable Rescaled Distances was used to construct a distance matrix to compare Cyclocardia species and other carditid groups. According to our results, Cyclocardia represents a non-monophyletic taxon and is thus a ‘wastebasket taxon’, chiefly because its diagnosis was based mainly on plesiomorphic characters. The European species C. kickxi and C. chameformis are placed within Scalaricardita, and the previously proposed genus Crassicardia is monophyletic (including C. crassidens, C. crebricostata, C. isaotakii and C. rjabininae). Three new genera are proposed for new groups identified by the phylogenetic analysis: South American Oesterheldia gen. nov. (including O. cannada and O. dalek), western North American Coanicardita gen. nov. (including C. ventricosa and C. occidentalis), and North Pacific Hippocampocardia gen. nov. (including H. barbarensis, H. hamiltonensis and H. yakatagensis). The newly defined monophyletic Cyclocardia is restricted to the Atlantic Ocean species C. borealis, C. novangliae and C. compressa.     

A total evidence analysis of the phylogeny of hatchet-faced treefrogs (Anura: Hylidae: Sphaenorhynchus)

The Neotropical hylid genus Sphaenorhynchus includes 15 species of small, greenish treefrogs widespread in the Amazon and Orinoco basins, and in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Although some studies have addressed the phylogenetic relationships of the genus with other hylids using a few exemplar species, its internal relationships remain poorly understood. In order to test its monophyly and the relationships among its species, we performed a total evidence phylogenetic analysis of sequences of three mitochondrial and three nuclear genes, and 193 phenotypic characters from all species of Sphaenorhynchus. Our results support the monophyly of Sphaenorhynchus with molecular and phenotypic evidence, with S. pauloalvini as the earliest diverging taxon, followed by S. carneus, as the sister taxon of all remaining species of the genus. We recognize three species groups in Sphaenorhynchus (the S. lacteus, S. planicola and S. platycephalus groups), to facilitate its taxonomic study; only three species (S. carneus, S. pauloalvini and S. prasinus) remain unassigned to any group. Sequence data were not available for only two species (S. bromelicola and S. palustris) for which we scored phenotypic data; wildcard behaviour was detected only in S. bromelicola nested inside the S. platycephalus group. On the basis of the resulting phylogenetic hypothesis, we discuss the evolution of oviposition site and a number of phenotypic characters that could be associated with heterochronic events in the evolutionary history of this group.     

Length–weight relationships for 39 species of moray eel from the waters around Taiwan

Length–weight relationships were determined in 39 muraenid species belonging to seven genera collected during 2003–2008 from the waters around Taiwan. Various fishing methods were used to collect both the adult and pre‐adult moray eel specimens. Length–weight relationship records of 28 species are provided for the first time. New maximum size records of six species were also established: 61.2 cm for Gymnothorax monostigma, 88.2 cm for G. niphostigmus, 68.6 cm for G. shaoi, 53.9 cm for G. taiwanensis, 73.2 cm for G. thyrsoideus, and 37.3 cm for U. micropterus.     

A molecular phylogeny of the north‐east Atlantic species of the genus Idotea (Isopoda) with focus on the Baltic Sea

Today, the marine isopods of the genus Idotea Fabricius, 1798 consist of 26 accepted species. Most species can be found in the Northern Hemisphere. While some species have a cosmopolitan distribution, others are endemic to a few coastlines. In the Baltic Sea, Idotea species have a key role as important meso‐grazers. Only three species can be found in this brackish environment, I. balthica, I. chelipes and I. granulosa, while nine species are described from the whole European coast. The goal of the present study was to reconstruct the phylogeny of the genus Idotea and to test whether the Baltic low‐salinity tolerant species represent a single lineage within the genus. The phylogeny of north‐east Atlantic Idotea species was investigated based on a fragment of the nuclear gene 28S and the mitochondrial gene COI for eight Idotea species. The phylogenetic reconstructions showed that the genus Idotea might not be monophyletic. Neither I. linearis nor I. urotoma did belong to the separated and well‐supported Idotea clade of I. balthica, I. chelipes, I. emarginata, I. granulosa, I. metallica and I. pelagica. The three Idotea species found in the Baltic belonged to different lineages, with estimated COI‐based divergence time older than 7 Myr. This suggests that the tolerance to low salinity has likely evolved in the genus Idotea more than once.