Electric field-induced functional reductions in the K+ channels mainly resulted from supramembrane potential-mediated electroconformational changes.

The goal of this study is to distinguish the supramembrane potential difference-induced electroconformational changes from the huge transmembrane current-induced thermal damages in the delayed rectifier K+ channels. A double Vaseline-gap voltage clamp was used to deliver shock pulses and to monitor the channel currents. Three pairs of 4-ms shock pulses were used to mimic the electric shock by a power-line frequency electric field. Each pair consists of two pulses with the same magnitude, starting from 350 to 500 mV, but with opposite polarities. The shock pulse-generated transmembrane ion flux and the responding electric energy, the Joule heating, consumed in the cell membrane, as well as the effects on the K+ channel currents, were obtained. Results showed that huge transmembrane currents are not necessary to cause damages in the K+ channel proteins. In contrast, reductions in the K+ channel currents are directly related to the field-induced supramembrane potential differences. By a comparison with the shock field-induced Joule heating effects on cell membranes, the field-induced supramembrane potential difference plays a dominant role in damaging the K+ channels, resulting in electroconformational changes in the membrane proteins. In contrast, the shock field-induced huge transmembrane currents, therefore the thermal effects, play a secondary, trivial role.     

Electrophysiological characterization of ivermectin triple actions on Musca chloride channels gated by l-glutamic acid and γ-aminobutyric acid

Ivermectin (IVM) is a macrocyclic lactone that exerts antifilarial, antiparasitic, and insecticidal effects on nematodes and insects by acting on l-glutamic acid-gated chloride channels (GluCls). IVM also acts as an allosteric modulator of various other ion channels. Although the IVM binding site in the Caenorhabditis elegans GluCl was identified by X-ray crystallographic analysis, the mechanism of action of IVM in insects is not well defined. We therefore examined the action of IVM on the housefly (Musca domestica) GluCl and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-gated ion channel (GABACl). For both channels, IVM induced currents by itself, potentiated currents induced by low concentrations of agonists, and inhibited currents induced by high concentrations of agonists. Despite exerting common actions on both types of channels, GluCls were more susceptible to IVM actions than GABACls, indicating that GluCls are the primary target of IVM. Substitution of an amino acid residue in the third transmembrane segment (G312M in GluCls, and G333A and G333M in GABACls) resulted in significantly reduced levels or loss of activation, potentiation, and antagonism of the channels, indicating that these three actions result from the interaction of IVM with amino acid residues in the transmembrane intersubunit crevice.     

Transmembrane peptides used to investigate the homo-oligomeric interface and binding hotspot of latent membrane protein 1

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a human γ-herpesvirus, establishes lifelong infection by targeting the adaptive immune system of the host through memory B cells. Although normally benign, EBV contributes to lymphoid malignancies and lymphoproliferative syndromes in immunocompromised individuals. The viral oncoprotein latent membrane protein 1 (LMP-1) is essential for B lymphocyte immortalization by EBV. The constitutive signaling activity of LMP-1 is dependent on homo-oligomerization of its six-spanning hydrophobic transmembrane domain (TMD). However, the mechanism driving LMP-1 intermolecular interaction is poorly understood. Here, we show that the fifth transmembrane helix (TM5) of LMP-1 strongly self-associates, forming a homotrimeric complex mediated by a polar residue embedded in the membrane, D150. Replacement of this aspartic acid residue with alanine disrupts TM5 self-association in detergent micelles and bacterial cell membranes. A full-length LMP-1 variant harboring the D150A substitution is deficient in NFκB activation, supporting the key role of the fifth transmembrane helix in constitutive activation of signaling by this oncoprotein.     

Mechanism Underlying the Effect of Mecamylamine on Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors of Rat Sympathetic Ganglion Neurons

On neurons of the superior cervical ganglion of 3-week-old rats, we studied the mechanism underlying the blocking effect of mecamylamine on transmembrane currents evoked by iontophoretic application of acetylcholine (ACh currents); these currents were recorded with the use of a patch-clamp technique in the whole-cell configuration. The IC₅₀ of the above agent equaled (2.7 ± 0.3) · 10^-10 M. The blocking effect of mecamylamine on ACh current did not depend on the membrane potential and decreased with rise in the concentration of the drug. Thus, a competitive blocking mechanism mostly underlies the above phenomenon.     

Biology and therapy of fibromyalgia: pain in fibromyalgia syndrome

Fibromyalgia (FM) pain is frequent in the general population but its pathogenesis is only poorly understood. Many recent studies have emphasized the role of central nervous system pain processing abnormalities in FM, including central sensitization and inadequate pain inhibition. However, increasing evidence points towards peripheral tissues as relevant contributors of painful impulse input that might either initiate or maintain central sensitization, or both. It is well known that persistent or intense nociception can lead to neuroplastic changes in the spinal cord and brain, resulting in central sensitization and pain. This mechanism represents a hallmark of FM and many other chronic pain syndromes, including irritable bowel syndrome, temporomandibular disorder, migraine, and low back pain. Importantly, after central sensitization has been established only minimal nociceptive input is required for the maintenance of the chronic pain state. Additional factors, including pain related negative affect and poor sleep have been shown to significantly contribute to clinical FM pain. Better understanding of these mechanisms and their relationship to central sensitization and clinical pain will provide new approaches for the prevention and treatment of FM and other chronic pain syndromes.     

Transmembrane domain III plays an important role in ion binding and permeation in the glycine transporter GLYT2

The neuronal glycine transporter GLYT2 takes up glycine from the extracellular space by an electrogenic process where this neurotransmitter is co-transported with sodium and chloride ions. We report in this paper that tyrosine at position 289 of GLYT2a is crucial for ion coupling, glycine affinity and sodium selectivity, stressing the essential role played by this residue of transmembrane domain III in the mechanism of transport. Substitution to tryptophan (Y289W), phenylalanine (Y289F), or serine (Y289S), renders transporters unable to catalyze glycine uptake. Measurements of glycine evoked steady-state currents in transfected HEK-293 cells reveal EC(50) values for glycine 17-fold (Y289F) and 45-fold (Y289S) higher than that of the wild type transporter. Sodium dependence is severely altered in tyrosine 289 mutants, both at the level of apparent affinity and cooperativity, with the more dramatic change corresponding to the less conservative substitution (Y289S). Accordingly, sodium selectivity is gradually lost in Y289F and Y289S mutants, and chloride dependence of glycine evoked currents is markedly decreased in Y289F and Y289S mutants. In the absence of three-dimensional information from these transporters, these results provide experimental evidence supporting the hypothesis of transmembrane domain III being part of a common permeation pathway for substrate and co-transported ions.     

Interaction between permeation and gating in a putative pore domain mutant in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a chloride channel with distinctive kinetics. At the whole-cell level, CFTR currents in response to voltage steps are time independent for wild type and for the many mutants reported so far. Single channels open for periods lasting up to tens of seconds; the openings are interrupted by brief closures at hyperpolarized, but not depolarized, potentials. Here we report a serine-to-phenylalanine mutation (S1118F) in the 11th transmembrane domain that confers voltage-dependent, single-exponential current relaxations and moderate inward rectification of the macroscopic currents upon expression in Xenopus oocytes. At steady state, the S1118F-CFTR single-channel conductance rectifies, corresponding to the whole-cell rectification. In addition, the open-channel burst duration is decreased 10-fold compared with wild-type channels. S1118F-CFTR currents are blocked in a voltage-dependent manner by diphenylamine-2-carboxylate (DPC); the affinity of S1118F-CFTR for DPC is similar to that of the wild-type channel, but blockade exhibits moderately reduced voltage dependence. Selectivity of the channel to a range of anions is also affected by this mutation. Furthermore, the permeation properties change during the relaxations, which suggests that there is an interaction between gating and permeation in this mutant. The existence of a mutation that confers voltage dependence upon CFTR currents and that changes kinetics and permeation properties of the channel suggests a functional role for the 11th transmembrane domain in the pore in the wild-type channel.     

Asymmetric structure of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator chloride channel pore suggested by mutagenesis of the twelfth transmembrane region

The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel contains 12 membrane-spanning regions which are presumed to form the transmembrane pore. Although a number of findings have suggested that the sixth transmembrane region plays a key role in forming the pore and determining its functional properties, the role of other transmembrane regions is currently not well established. Here we assess the functional importance of the twelfth transmembrane region, which occupies a homologous position in the carboxy terminal half of the CFTR molecule to that of the sixth transmembrane region in the amino terminal half. Five residues in potentially important regions of the twelfth transmembrane region were mutated individually to alanines, and the function of the mutant channels was examined using patch clamp recording following expression in mammalian cell lines. Three of the five mutations significantly weakened block of unitary Cl(-) currents by SCN(-), implying a partial disruption of anion binding within the pore. Two of these mutations also caused a large reduction in the steady-state channel mean open probability, suggesting a role for the twelfth transmembrane region in channel gating. However, in direct contrast to analogous mutations in the sixth transmembrane region, all mutants studied here had negligible effects on the anion selectivity and unitary Cl(-) conductance of the channel. The relatively minor effects of these five mutations on channel permeation properties suggests that, despite their symmetrical positions within the CFTR protein, the sixth and twelfth transmembrane regions make highly asymmetric contributions to the functional properties of the pore.     

The study of sodium channels involved in pain responses using specific modulators

Voltage-gated sodium channels(VGSCs) are transmembrane proteins responsible for generation and conduction of action potentials in excitable cells.Physiological and pharmacological studies have demonstrated that VGSCs play a critical role in chronic pain associated with tissue or nerve injury.Many long-chain peptide toxins(60-76 amino acid residues) purified from the venom of Asian scorpion Buthus martensii Karsch(BmK) are investigated to be sodium channel-specific modulators.The α-like neurotoxins that can ...     

Cu(II) inhibition of the proton translocation machinery of the influenza A virus M2 protein

The homotetrameric M2 integral membrane protein of influenza virus forms a proton-selective ion channel. An essential histidine residue (His-37) in the M2 transmembrane domain is believed to play an important role in the conduction mechanism of this channel. Also, this residue is believed to form hydrogen-bonded interactions with the ammonium group of the anti-viral compound, amantadine. A molecular model of this channel suggests that the imidazole side chains of His-37 from symmetry-related monomers of the homotetrameric pore converge to form a coordination site for transition metals. Thus, membrane currents of oocytes of Xenopus laevis expressing the M2 protein were recorded when the solution bathing the oocytes contained various transition metals. Membrane currents were strongly and reversibly inhibited by Cu2+ with biphasic reaction kinetics. The biphasic inhibition curves may be explained by a two-site model involving a fast-binding peripheral site with low specificity for divalent metal ions, as well as a high affinity site (Kdiss approximately 2 microM) that lies deep within the pore and shows rather slow-binding kinetics (kon = 18.6 +/- 0.9 M-1 s-1). The pH dependence of the interaction with the high affinity Cu2+-binding site parallels the pH dependence of inhibition by amantadine, which has previously been ascribed to protonation of His-37. The voltage dependence of the inhibition at the high affinity site indicates that the binding site lies within the transmembrane region of the pore. Furthermore, the inhibition by Cu2+ could be prevented by prior application of the reversible blocker of M2 channel activity, BL-1743, providing further support for the location of the site within the pore region of M2. Finally, substitutions of His-37 by alanine or glycine eliminated the high affinity site and resulted in membrane currents that were only partially inhibited at millimolar concentrations of Cu2+. Binding of Cu2+ to the high affinity site resulted in an approximately equal inhibition of both inward and outward currents. The wild-type protein showed very high specificity for Cu2+ and was only partially inhibited by 1 mM Ni2+, Pt2+, and Zn2+. These data are discussed in terms of the functional role of His-37 in the mechanism of proton translocation through the channel.     

Tracking S4 movement by gating pore currents in the bacterial sodium channel NaChBac

Voltage-gated sodium channels mediate the initiation and propagation of action potentials in excitable cells. Transmembrane segment S4 of voltage-gated sodium channels resides in a gating pore where it senses the membrane potential and controls channel gating. Substitution of individual S4 arginine gating charges (R1–R3) with smaller amino acids allows ionic currents to flow through the mutant gating pore, and these gating pore currents are pathogenic in some skeletal muscle periodic paralysis syndromes. The voltage dependence of gating pore currents provides information about the transmembrane position of the gating charges as S4 moves in response to membrane potential. Here we studied gating pore current in mutants of the homotetrameric bacterial sodium channel NaChBac in which individual arginine gating charges were replaced by cysteine. Gating pore current was observed for each mutant channel, but with different voltage-dependent properties. Mutating the first (R1C) or second (R2C) arginine to cysteine resulted in gating pore current at hyperpolarized membrane potentials, where the channels are in resting states, but not at depolarized potentials, where the channels are activated. Conversely, the R3C gating pore is closed at hyperpolarized membrane potentials and opens with channel activation. Negative conditioning pulses revealed time-dependent deactivation of the R3C gating pore at the most hyperpolarized potentials. Our results show sequential voltage dependence of activation of gating pore current from R1 to R3 and support stepwise outward movement of the substituted cysteines through the narrow portion of the gating pore that is sealed by the arginine side chains in the wild-type channel. This pattern of voltage dependence of gating pore current is consistent with a sliding movement of the S4 helix through the gating pore. Through comparison with high-resolution models of the voltage sensor of bacterial sodium channels, these results shed light on the structural basis for pathogenic gating pore currents in periodic paralysis syndromes.     

Role of sodium ferulate in the nociceptive sensory facilitation of neuropathic pain injury mediated by P2X(3) receptor

Neuropathic pain usually is persistent and no effective treatment. ATP plays an important role in the initiation of pain. P2X(3) receptors are localized in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and activated by extracellular ATP. Sodium ferulate (SF) is an active principle from Chinese herbal medicine and has anti-inflammatory activities. This study observed the effects of SF on the nociceptive facilitation of the primary sensory afferent after chronic constriction injury (CCI) mediated by P2X(3) receptor. In this study, the content of ATP in DRG neurons was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). P2X(3) agonist-activated currents in DRG neurons was recorded by the whole-cell patch-clamp skill. The expression of P2X(3) mRNA in DRG neurons was analyzed by in situ hybridization. The ATP content of DRG was increased after CCI. In CCI rats treated with SF, the content of ATP in DRG neurons was reduced. SF decreased the increment of P2X(3) agonist-activated currents and P2X(3) mRNA expression in DRG neurons during CCI. SF may inhibit the initiation of pain and primary afferent sensitization mediated by P2X(3) receptor during CCI.     

电突触电流在单个吸气性气管运动神经元中的选择性显示

在呼吸相关神经元或其它任何类型的神经元中,与生理性自发活动相对应的电突触电流（gap junction currents,GJCs）尚未在单个神经元中被记录到,因此电突触如何参与呼吸相关的或其它类型的生理性活动,目前所知甚少。在本研究中,我们假设GJCs可在电压钳记录条件下通过消除跨膜电化学梯度在单个神经元实现选择性记录,并在单个吸气性气管迷走神经节前神经元（inspiratory tracheal preganglionic vagal motor neurons,I-TPVMs）进行验证。结果显示,用这种方法在所有I-TPVMs中均记录到GJCs,且这些神经元的GJCs可被节律性中枢吸气活动所激活。此法可用于快速探测具自发活动的神经元网络中的GJCs。     

Role of ionic currents in the physiological response to angiotensin II.

Studies using conventional and patch-clamp microelectrode techniques demonstrate that in a number of cell types angiotensin II (AII) causes reversible changes in transmembrane ionic currents, and that these effects can be mimicked by various membrane-associated and cytosolic messengers. AII modulates the current amplitude of ion channels, as well as their activation threshold and their open/closed time probability. Stimulatory and inhibitory effects on ion channel activity are a fundamental feature of the development of AII actions on target organs.     

Evidence of Heterosynaptic LTD in the Human Nociceptive System: Superficial Skin Neuromodulation Using a Matrix Electrode Reduces Deep Pain Sensitivity

Long term depression (LTD) is a neuronal learning mechanism after low frequency stimulation (LFS). This study compares two types of electrodes (concentric vs. matrix) and stimulation frequencies (4 and 30 Hz) to examine homo- and heterosynaptic effects indirectly depicted from the somatosensory profile of healthy subjects. Both electrodes were compared in a prospective, randomized, controlled cross-over study using 4 Hz as the conditioning LFS compared to 30 Hz (intended sham condition). Quantitative sensory testing (QST) was used to examine 13 thermal and mechanical detection and pain thresholds. Sixteen healthy volunteers (10 women, age 31.0±12.7 years) were examined. Depending on the electrodes and frequencies used a divergent pattern of sensory minus signs occurred. Using LFS the concentric electrode increased thermal thresholds, while the matrix electrode rather increased mechanical including deep pain thresholds. Findings after cutaneous neuromodulation using LFS and a matrix electrode are consistent with the concept of heterosynaptic LTD in the human nociceptive system, where deep pain sensitivity was reduced after superficial stimulation of intraepidermal nerve fibres. Cutaneous neuromodulation using LFS and a matrix electrode may be a useful tool to influence deep pain sensitivity in a variety of chronic pain syndromes.     

Transmembrane domain I of the gamma-aminobutyric acid transporter GAT-1 plays a crucial role in the transition between cation leak and transport modes

The sodium- and chloride-dependent gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transporter is essential for synaptic transmission by this neurotransmitter. GAT-1 expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes exhibits sodium-dependent GABA-induced inward currents reflecting electrogenic sodium-coupled transport. In lithium-containing medium, GAT-1 mediates GABA-independent currents, the relationship of which to the physiological transport process is poorly understood. In this study, mutants are described that appear to be locked in this cation leak mode. When Gly(63), located in the middle of the highly conserved transmembrane domain I, was mutated to serine or cysteine, sodium-dependent GABA currents were abolished. Strikingly, these mutants exhibited robust inward currents in lithium- as well as potassium-containing media. Membrane-impermeant sulfhydryl reagents inhibited these currents of the cysteine but not of the serine mutant, indicating that this position was accessible to the external aqueous medium. The cation leak currents mediated by wild-type GAT-1 were inhibited by low millimolar sodium concentrations in a noncompetitive manner. Mutations at other positions of transmembrane domain I increased or decreased the apparent sodium affinity, as monitored by the sodium-dependent steady-state GABA currents or transient currents. In parallel, the ability of sodium to inhibit the cation leak currents was increased or decreased, respectively. Thus, transmembrane domain I of GAT-1 contains determinants controlling both sodium-coupled GABA flux and the cation leak pathway as well as the interconversion of these distinct modes. Our observations suggest the possibility that the permeation pathway in both modes shares common structural elements.     

Chloride channels in the small intestinal cell line IEC-18

Small intestinal crypt cells play a critical role in modulating Cl- secretion during digestion. The types of Cl- channels mediating Cl- secretion in the small intestine was investigated using the intestinal epithelial cell line, IEC-18, which was derived from rat small intestine crypt cells. In initial radioisotope efflux studies, exposure to forskolin, ionomycin or a decrease in extracellular osmolarity significantly increased 36Cl efflux as compared to control cells. Whole cell patch clamp techniques were subsequently used to examine in more detail the swelling-, Ca2+-, and cAMP-activated Cl- conductance. Decreasing the extracellular osmolarity from 290 to 200 mOsm activated a large outwardly rectifying Cl- current that was voltage-independent and had an anion selectivity of I- > Cl-. Increasing cytosolic Ca2+ by ionomycin activated whole cell Cl- currents, which were also outwardly rectifying but were voltage-dependent. The increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels with ionomycin was confirmed with fura-2 loaded IEC-18 cells. A third type of whole cell Cl- current was observed after increases in intracellular cAMP induced by forskolin. These cAMP-activated Cl- currents have properties consistent with cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator (CFTR) Cl- channels, as the currents were blocked by glibenclamide or NPPB but insensitive to DIDS. In addition, the current-voltage relationship was linear and had an anion selectivity of Cl- > I-. Confocal immunofluorescence studies and Western blots with two different anti-CFTR antibodies confirmed the expression of CFTR. These results suggest that small intestinal crypt cells express multiple types of Cl- channels, which may all contribute to net Cl- secretion.     

Role of Tyrosine Phosphorylation in the Muscarinic Activation of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR)

Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a chloride (Cl⁻) channel, which plays an important role in physiological anion and fluid secretion, and is defective in several diseases. Although its activation by PKA and PKC has been studied extensively, its regulation by receptors is less well understood. To study signaling involved in CFTR activation, we measured whole-cell Cl⁻ currents in BHK cells cotransfected with GPCRs and CFTR. In cells expressing the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, the agonist carbachol (Cch) caused strong activation of CFTR through two pathways; the canonical PKA-dependent mechanism and a second mechanism that involves tyrosine phosphorylation. The role of PKA was suggested by partial inhibition of cholinergic stimulation by the specific PKA inhibitor Rp-cAMPS. The role of tyrosine kinases was suggested by Cch stimulation of 15SA-CFTR and 9CA-CFTR, mutants that lack 15 PKA or 9 PKC consensus sequences and are unresponsive to PKA or PKC stimulation, respectively. Moreover the residual Cch response was sensitive to inhibitors of the Pyk2 and Src tyrosine kinase family. Our results suggest that tyrosine phosphorylation acts on CFTR directly and through inhibition of the phosphatase PP2A. Results suggest that PKA and tyrosine kinases contribute to CFTR regulation by GPCRs that are expressed at the apical membrane of intestinal and airway epithelia.     

Sodium Channelopathies: From Molecular Physiology towards Medical Genetics

Voltage-gated sodium channels are heteromeric transmembrane proteins involved in the conduction of sodium ion currents in response to membrane depolarization. In humans, nine homologous genes, SCN1A–11A, which encode different isoforms of the voltage-gated sodium channel family, are known. Sodium channel isoforms exhibit different kinetic properties that determine different types of neurons. Mutations in different channels are described in patients with various congenital disorders, from epilepsy to congenital insensitivity to pain. This review presents an analysis of the current literature on the properties of different isoforms of voltage-gated sodium channels and associated diseases.